Saussurea

Saussurea/Drug Interactions:

  • AnalgesicsAnalgesics: In animal research, various Saussurea species had anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. In the writhing test, oral Saussurea laniceps extract reduced the number of writhings, and in the hot-plate test, Saussurea laniceps extract increased the jumping response latency (59). Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of a tissue culture of Saussurea involucrata were also shown (10).
  • Antianxiety agentsAntianxiety agents: In animal research, petroleum ether and alcoholic extracts of Saussurea lappa Clark had anxiolytic effects (5).
  • AntibioticsAntibiotics: Antibacterial (growth, acid production, and adhesion) effects of the ethanol extract of Saussurea lappa were shown in vitro against Streptococcus mutans (7). Antibacterial effects of constituents isolated from Saussurea have been shown in vitro (29; 9; 37).
  • Anticoagulants and antiplateletsAnticoagulants and antiplatelets: In animal research, the pharmacokinetic and synergistic interactions between warfarin and the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, a combination product containing Saussurea, were examined (8). The compound had a lack of effect on the absorption or serum protein binding of warfarin, but it suppressed its metabolism and elimination. The authors indicated that the dose of Kangen-karyu did affect the pharmacokinetic interaction with warfarin, suggesting the need to regulate its dosage. Also, at a dose of Kangen-karyu that did not exhibit pharmacokinetic interactions with warfarin, there was a prolonged mice tail-bleeding time when the two were used together. The effect of Saussurea alone is not clear. In animal research, combined therapy of ticlopidine and Kangen-karyu may augment the antithrombotic effects of ticlopidine (72).
  • AntidiabeticsAntidiabetics: In an animal diabetic model, the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, which contains Saussurea, reduced plasma levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose, and had antioxidant effects, resulting in reduced lipid peroxides (malondialdehyde) and advanced glycation products (14; 48). In vitro, this preparation resulted in reduced damage caused by hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress; the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappaB and overexpression of nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 proteins were inhibited (51).
  • AntifungalsAntifungals: Antifungal effects of constituents isolated from Saussurea have been shown in vitro (9), and the antifungal effects of Saussurea lappa were the topic of discussion by another author (details not available at this time) (98).
  • AntihypertensivesAntihypertensives: In a rat model of metabolic syndrome, the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, which contains Saussurea, improved hypertension; the regulation of hepatic SREBP-1 protein and the NF-kappaB signaling pathway played a role (48). In preliminary research and in vitro, extracts and constituents of Saussurea have been shown to inhibit the production and accumulation of nitric oxide (99; 100; 101; 102; 103; 61); however, the clinical significance of these findings is unknown.
  • Anti-inflammatoriesAnti-inflammatories: In animal research, various Saussurea species had anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. In a rat paw edema model, Saussurea laniceps and Saussurea involucrata had anti-inflammatory effects, and the oral administration of Saussurea laniceps, Saussurea involucrata, and Saussurea medusa extract had anti-inflammatory effects in a mouse ear edema model (59). Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of a tissue culture of Saussurea involucrata were also shown (10). Anti-inflammatory effects of the sesquiterpene lactone fraction of Saussurea lappa were also shown in an animal model (104). In vitro, a petroleum ether extract of S. lappa Decne. inhibited the overproduction of nitric oxide, and isolated constituents inhibited the production of nitric oxide, as well as the release of TNF-alpha (99). The anti-inflammatory effects of Saussurea were discussed in a review (56).
  • AntilipemicsAntilipemics: In animal diabetic and aging models, the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, containing Saussurea, reduced plasma levels of total cholesterol and triglycerides (50; 14; 48; 58).
  • AntineoplasticsAntineoplastics: Anticancer effects of Saussurea, costus root oil, and constituents have been shown in animal and in vitro studies (18; 19; 20; 21; 22; 23; 24; 25; 26; 27; 28; 29; 30; 31; 32; 33; 34; 35; 36; 37; 38; 39; 40; 41; 42). However, according to secondary sources, aristocholic acid, a constituent found in some Saussurea preparations, may cause cancer.
  • AntiprotozoalsAntiprotozoals: In vitro, Saussurea lappa inhibited the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi (105). In animal research, S. lappa resulted in degeneration, atrophy, dilation, and reduced egg-laying of Clonorchis sinensis (106; 107). The antilamblial activities of Saussurea extract were also discussed, but further details are limited at this time (108).
  • Antiulcer and gastric acid-reducing agentsAntiulcer and gastric acid-reducing agents: In animal research, saussureamines had antiulcer effects (109). The antiulcer effects of Saussurea were discussed in a review (56)
  • AntiviralsAntivirals: In animal research, costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone suppressed the hepatitis B virus surface antigen gene expression in human hepatoma cells (15).
  • Cardiovascular agentsCardiovascular agents: Shoji et al. published a paper discussing vasoactive substances isolated from Saussurea lappa (43). Substances were isolated from the methanol extract of S. lappa that inhibited contractions of the rabbit-isolated aorta. In animal research, the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, which contains Saussurea, reduced total and LDL cholesterol levels and increased HDL cholesterol in a diet-induced hypercholesterolemia model (44). In a rat model of metabolic syndrome, Kangen-karyu improved hypertension; the regulation of hepatic SREBP-1 protein and the NF-kappaB signaling pathway played a role (48). However, the effects of Saussurea alone are unclear from these studies that assessed Kangen-karyu.
  • Dermatologic agentsDermatologic agents: Dermal irritation from costus oil and its sesquiterpene lactone constituents has been shown in various studies in humans (73; 74; 75; 17; 46; 76; 77; 78; 79; 80; 81; 82).
  • Exercise agentsExercise agents: In animal research, polysaccharides from Saussurea involucrata decreased oxygen consumption and prolonged swimming time (52).
  • Gastrointestinal agentsGastrointestinal agents: In isolated tissue preparations, the aqueous-methanol crude extract of S. lappa root stimulated and inhibited the intestinal tract (47).
  • HepatotoxinsHepatotoxins: In animal research, hepatoprotective effects of S. lappa extract against D-galactosamine and lipopolysaccharide-induced hepatitis were shown, resulting in reduced ALT and AST and improved liver histology (57). In animal research, S. amara and some of its constituents had choleretic effects, resulting in increased bile flow (16). The hepatoprotective effects of Saussurea were discussed in a review (56). In animal research, the antioxidative effects of the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, which contains Saussurea, as well as its crude drug component Carthami flos, were found to explain the hepato- and renoprotective effects associated with aging (4). In animal research, Kangen-karyu prevented the elevation of serum ALT and AST in a diet-induced hypercholesterolemia model (44).
  • HematologicsHematologics: In vitro, moderate UVA-induced hemolysis was found with costus root oil (97).
  • ImmunosuppressantsImmunosuppressants: In vitro, a guaiane-type sesquiterpene inhibited the proliferation of murine T cells (110). In vitro, costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone inhibited the killing function of cytotoxic T lymphocytes by preventing the increase in tyrosine phosphorylation (111). In vitro, diluted (homeopathic) extracts of S. lappa roots increased leukocyte phagocytic activity, and inhibited lymphocyte proliferation and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) levels (11).
  • Neurologic agentsNeurologic agents: In vitro in PC12 cells, selaginellin, a constituent of S. pulvinata, protected against glutamate toxicity; morphological features, lactate dehydrogenase release levels, antioxidant effects, and cell viability were all examined (112). In vitro, in cultured rat cortical cells, a methanolic extract of S. triangulata, as well as its constituent methyl 5-caffeoylquinic acid, exhibited neuroprotective effects against glutamate-induced toxicity (113). In animal research, the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, which contains Saussurea, improved memory in an aging model by altering the neuroplasticity-related signaling system (phosphorylated forms of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor 1, Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II, and cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor) and VEGF system in the brain (45). This agent was also found to ameliorate neuronal damage in animals subjected to repeated cerebral ischemia, as well as in vitro; inhibition of the glutamatergic receptors of the postsynaptic neurons and increased cerebral blood flow may play a role (62; 114). However, the effects of Saussurea alone are unclear from the studies that assessed Kangen-karyu.
  • OxytocicsOxytocics: In isolated rat uteri, Saussurea polysaccharide had stimulatory effects (64). The amplitude, frequency, and tonus of the uterus contraction increased, with the greatest effects on estrous uteri.
  • Renal agentsRenal agents: In animal research, the antioxidative effects of the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, containing Saussurea, as well as its crude drug component Carthami flos, were found to explain the hepato- and renoprotective effects associated with aging (4).
  • ScopolamineScopolamine: In animal research, the constituent apigenin 7-O-[alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1-->6)-beta-D-glucopyranoside attenuated the scopolamine-induced memory deficit of mice (115).
  • TiclopidineTiclopidine: In animal research, combined therapy of ticlopidine and Kangen-karyu (a combination product containing Saussurea) may augment the antithrombotic effects of ticlopidine (72).
  • WarfarinWarfarin: In animal research, the pharmacokinetic and synergistic interactions between warfarin and the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, containing Saussurea, were examined (8). The compound had a lack of effect on the absorption or serum protein binding of warfarin, but it suppressed its metabolism and elimination. The authors indicated that the dose of Kangen-karyu did affect the pharmacokinetic interaction with warfarin, suggesting the need to regulate its dosage. Also, at a dose of Kangen-karyu that did not exhibit pharmacokinetic interactions with warfarin, there was a prolonged mice tail-bleeding time when the two were used together. The effect of Saussurea alone is not clear.

    • Saussurea/Herb/Supplement Interactions:

  • AnalgesicsAnalgesics: In animal research, various Saussurea species had anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. In the writhing test, oral Saussurea laniceps extract reduced the number of writhings, and in the hot-plate test, Saussurea laniceps extract increased the jumping response latency (59). Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of a tissue culture of Saussurea involucrata were also shown (10).
  • Antianxiety agentsAntianxiety agents: In animal research, petroleum ether and alcoholic extracts of Saussurea lappa Clark had anxiolytic effects (5).
  • AntibacterialsAntibacterials: Antibacterial (growth, acid production, and adhesion) effects of an ethanol extract of Saussurea lappa were shown in vitro against Streptococcus mutans (7). Antibacterial effects of constituents isolated from Saussurea have been shown in vitro (29; 9; 37).
  • Anticoagulants and antiplateletsAnticoagulants and antiplatelets: In animal research, the pharmacokinetic and synergistic interactions between warfarin and the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, a combination product containing Saussurea, were examined (8). The compound had a lack of effect on the absorption or serum protein-binding of warfarin, but it suppressed its metabolism and elimination. The authors indicated that the dose of Kangen-karyu did affect the pharmacokinetic interaction with warfarin, suggesting the need to regulate its dosage. Also, at a dose of Kangen-karyu that did not exhibit pharmacokinetic interactions with warfarin, there was a prolonged mice tail-bleeding time when the two were used together. The effect of Saussurea alone is not clear. In animal research, combined therapy of ticlopidine and Kangen-karyu may augment the antithrombotic effects of ticlopidine (72).
  • AntifungalsAntifungals: Antifungal effects of constituents isolated from Saussurea have been shown in vitro (9), and the antifungal effects of Saussurea lappa were the topic of discussion by another author (details not available at this time) (98).
  • Anti-inflammatoriesAnti-inflammatories: In animal research, various Saussurea species had anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. In a rat paw edema model, Saussurea laniceps and Saussurea involucrata had anti-inflammatory effects, and the oral administration of Saussurea laniceps, Saussurea involucrata, and Saussurea medusa extract had anti-inflammatory effects in a mouse ear edema model (59). Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of a tissue culture of Saussurea involucrata were also shown (10). In vitro, the petroleum ether extract of S. lappa Decne. inhibited the overproduction of nitric oxide, and isolated constituents inhibited the production of nitric oxide, as well as the release of TNF-alpha (99). The anti-inflammatory effects of Saussurea were discussed in a review (56).
  • AntilipemicsAntilipemics: In animal diabetic and aging models, the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, containing Saussurea, reduced plasma levels of total cholesterol and triglycerides (50; 14; 48; 58).
  • AntineoplasticsAntineoplastics: Anticancer effects of Saussurea, costus root oil, and constituents have been shown in animal and in vitro studies (18; 19; 20; 21; 22; 23; 24; 25; 26; 27; 28; 29; 30; 31; 32; 33; 34; 35; 36; 37; 38; 39; 40; 41; 42). However, according to secondary sources, aristocholic acid, a constituent found in some Saussurea preparations, may cause cancer.
  • AntioxidantsAntioxidants: Antioxidant effects of Saussurea, its constituents, and the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, containing Saussurea, have been shown in animal and in vitro studies (14; 51; 1; 2; 3; 4; 44; 116; 117; 118; 115; 52).
  • AntiparasiticsAntiparasitics: In vitro, Saussurea lappa inhibited the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi (105). In animal research, S. lappa resulted in degeneration, atrophy, dilation, and reduced egg-laying of Clonorchis sinensis (106; 107). The antilamblial activities of Saussurea extract were also discussed, but further details are limited at this time (108).
  • Antiulcer and gastric acid-reducing agentsAntiulcer and gastric acid-reducing agents: In animal research, saussureamines had antiulcer effects (109). The antiulcer effects of Saussurea were discussed in a review (56)
  • AntiviralsAntivirals: In animal research, costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone suppressed the hepatitis B virus surface antigen gene expression in human hepatoma cells (15).
  • Cardiovascular agentsCardiovascular agents: Shoji et al. published a paper discussing vasoactive substances isolated from Saussurea lappa (43). Substances were isolated from the methanol extract of S. lappa, which inhibited contractions of the rabbit-isolated aorta. In animal research, the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, which contains Saussurea, reduced total and LDL cholesterol levels and increased HDL cholesterol in a diet-induced hypercholesterolemia model (44). In a rat model of metabolic syndrome, Kangen-karyu improved hypertension; the regulation of hepatic SREBP-1 protein and the NF-kappaB signaling pathway played a role (48). However, the effects of Saussurea alone are unclear from these studies that assessed Kangen-karyu.
  • CorydalisCorydalis: In isolated mouse ileum, Saussurea root augmented the pharmacological action of Corydalis tuber (119). There was increased depression of acetylcholine-induced contraction caused by Corydalis tuber extract.
  • Dermatologic agentsDermatologic agents: Dermal irritation from costus oil and its sesquiterpene lactone constituents has been shown in various studies in humans (73; 74; 75; 17; 46; 76; 77; 78; 79; 80; 81; 82).
  • Exercise agentsExercise agents: In animal research, polysaccharides from Saussurea involucrata decreased oxygen consumption and prolonged swimming time (52).
  • Gastrointestinal agentsGastrointestinal agents: In isolated tissue preparations, an aqueous-methanol crude extract of S. lappa root stimulated and inhibited the intestinal tract (47).
  • HematologicsHematologics: In vitro, moderate UVA-induced hemolysis was found with costus root oil (97).
  • HepatotoxinsHepatotoxins: In animal research, hepatoprotective effects of S. lappa extract against D-galactosamine and lipopolysaccharide-induced hepatitis were shown, resulting in reduced ALT and AST and improved liver histology (57). In animal research, S. amara and some of its constituents had choleretic effects, resulting in increased bile flow (16). The hepatoprotective effects of Saussurea were discussed in a review (56). In animal research, the antioxidative effects of the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, which contains Saussurea, as well as its crude drug component Carthami flos, were found to explain the hepato- and renoprotective effects associated with aging (4). In animal research, Kangen-karyu prevented the elevation of serum ALT and AST in a diet-induced hypercholesterolemia model (44).
  • Hyperglycemics/hypoglycemicsHyperglycemics/hypoglycemics: In an animal diabetic model, the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, containing Saussurea, reduced plasma levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose, and had antioxidant effects, resulting in reduced lipid peroxides (malondialdehyde) and advanced glycation end products (14; 48). In vitro, this preparation resulted in reduced damage caused by hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress; the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappaB and overexpression of nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 proteins were inhibited (51).
  • Hypertensives/hypotensivesHypertensives/hypotensives: In a rat model of metabolic syndrome, the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, which contains Saussurea, improved hypertension; the regulation of hepatic SREBP-1 protein and the NF-kappaB signaling pathway played a role (48). In preliminary research and in vitro, extracts and constituents of Saussurea have been shown to inhibit the production and accumulation of nitric oxide (99; 100; 101; 102; 103; 61); however, the clinical significance of these findings is unknown.
  • ImmunomodulatorsImmunomodulators: In vitro, a guaiane-type sesquiterpene inhibited the proliferation of murine T cells (110). In vitro, costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone inhibited the killing function of cytotoxic T lymphocytes by preventing the increase in tyrosine phosphorylation (111). In vitro, diluted (homeopathic) extracts of S. lappa roots increased leukocyte phagocytic activity and inhibited lymphocyte proliferation and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) levels (11).
  • Kangen-karyuKangen-karyu: Based on its presence in the Chinese product Kangen-karyu, it is possible that Saussurea has synergistic effects with this product.
  • Neurologic agentsNeurologic agents: In vitro in PC12 cells, selaginellin, a constituent of S. pulvinata, protected against glutamate toxicity; morphological features, lactate dehydrogenase release levels, antioxidant effects, and cell viability were all examined (112). In vitro, in cultured rat cortical cells, a methanolic extract of S. triangulata, as well as its constituent methyl 5-caffeoylquinic acid, exhibited neuroprotective effects against glutamate-induced toxicity (113). In animal research, the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, which contains Saussurea, improved memory in an aging model by altering the neuroplasticity-related signaling system (phosphorylated forms of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor 1, Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II, and cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor) and VEGF system in the brain (45). This agent was also found to ameliorate neuronal damage in animals subjected to repeated cerebral ischemia, as well as in vitro; inhibition of the glutamatergic receptors of the postsynaptic neurons and increased cerebral blood flow may play a role (62; 114). However, the effects of Saussurea alone are unclear from the studies that assessed Kangen-karyu.
  • OxytocicsOxytocics: In isolated rat uteri, Saussurea polysaccharide had stimulatory effects (64). The amplitude, frequency, and tonus of the uterus contraction increased, with the greatest effects on estrous uteri.
  • Renal agentsRenal agents: In animal research, the antioxidative effects of the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, containing Saussurea, as well as its crude drug component Carthami flos, were found to explain the hepato- and renoprotective effects associated with aging (4).
  • ScopolamineScopolamine: In animal research, the constituent apigenin 7-O-[alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1-->6)-beta-D-glucopyranoside attenuated the scopolamine-induced memory deficit of mice (115).

    • Saussurea/Food Interactions:

  • Insufficient available evidence

    • Saussurea/Lab Interactions:

  • Anti-inflammatory measurementsAnti-inflammatory measurements: Anti-inflammatory effects of the sesquiterpene lactone fraction of Saussurea lappa were also shown in an animal model (104). Biochemical parameters such as alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase, and gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase were reduced and albumin levels were increased.
  • Blood glucoseBlood glucose: In an animal diabetic model, the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, containing Saussurea, reduced plasma levels of glucose (14; 48).
  • Blood pressureBlood pressure: In a rat model of metabolic syndrome, Kangen-karyu improved hypertension (48). In preliminary research and in vitro, extracts and constituents of Saussurea have been shown to inhibit the production and accumulation of nitric oxide (99; 100; 101; 102; 103; 61); however, the clinical significance of these findings is unknown.
  • Coagulation panelCoagulation panel: In animal research, the pharmacokinetic and synergistic interactions between warfarin and the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, containing Saussurea, were examined (8). The compound had a lack of effect on the absorption or serum protein-binding of warfarin, but it suppressed its metabolism and elimination. The authors indicated that the dose of Kangen-karyu did affect the pharmacokinetic interaction with warfarin, suggesting the need to regulate its dosage. Also, at a dose of Kangen-karyu that did not exhibit pharmacokinetic interactions with warfarin, there was a prolonged mice tail-bleeding time when the two were used together. The effect of Saussurea alone is not clear.
  • Interferon-gammaInterferon-gamma: In vitro, diluted (homeopathic) extracts of S. lappa roots inhibited interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) levels (11).
  • MotilinMotilin: In humans, Saussurea lappa resulted in decreased levels of plasma motilin (93).
  • Nitric oxideNitric oxide: In vitro, the petroleum ether extract of S. lappa Decne. inhibited the overproduction of nitric oxide, and isolated constituents inhibited production of nitric oxide (99). In vitro, cynaropicrin inhibited the accumulation of nitric oxide (100). Other mechanisms of action related to anti-inflammatory effects of Saussurea constituents include inhibition of nitric oxide production (101; 102; 103; 61).
  • Plasma lipidsPlasma lipids: In an animal diabetic model, the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu, containing Saussurea, reduced plasma levels of total cholesterol and triglycerides (14; 48).
  • TNF-alphaTNF-alpha: In vitro, constituents inhibited release of TNF-alpha (99). In vitro, cynaropicrin inhibited TNF-alpha release (100). Mechanisms of action related to anti-inflammatory effects of Saussurea constituents include inhibition of TNF-alpha (120; 61).