Carbonyl iron

Related Terms

Atomic number 26, carbonyl iron, dextran-iron, elemental iron, FE, Fer, ferric ammonium chloride, ferric chloride, ferric citrate, ferric phosphate, ferric pyrophosphate, ferric sodium pyrophosphate, ferric sulfate, ferrous ascorbate, ferrous carbonate, ferrous carbonate anhydrous, ferrous citrate, ferrous fumarate, ferrous fumarate sprinkles, ferrous gluconate, ferrous lactate, ferrous pyrophosphate, ferrous sulfate, heme-iron, iron dextran, iron proteinsuccinylate, iron sorbitol, iron sucrose, iron sulfate, iron(III)-hydroxide polymaltose complex, iron-choline citrate complex, iron-polysaccharide, iron-polystyrene sulphonate, ITF 282, NaFeEDTA, nonheme iron, reduced iron, saccharated iron, sodium ferric gluconate, sodium ferric gluconate complex (SFGC), sodium iron ethylenediaminetetra-acetate.

Background

Iron is an essential mineral and an important component of proteins involved in oxygen transport and metabolism. Iron is also essential in the synthesis of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Approximately 15 percent of the body's iron is stored for future needs and mobilized when dietary intake is inadequate. The body usually maintains normal iron status by controlling the amount of iron absorbed from food.
The World Health Organization considers iron deficiency to be the largest international nutritional disorder. Approximately 50% of anemia worldwide is attributable to iron deficiency.
Iron deficiency may be determined by measurement of iron levels within the body, mainly serum ferritin levels, which may also help distinguish between iron deficiency anemia and anemia associated with chronic disease, such as chronic kidney disease (CKD).
There are two forms of dietary iron: heme and nonheme. Sources of heme iron include meat, fish, and poultry. Sources of nonheme iron, which is not absorbed as well as heme iron, include beans, lentils, flours, cereals, and grain products. Other sources of iron include dried fruit, peas, asparagus, leafy greens, strawberries, and nuts.
Vegan and vegetarian diets may increase the risk of deficiencies for certain vitamins and minerals, including iron.

Evidence Table

These uses have been tested in humans or animals. Safety and effectiveness have not always been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should be evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider. GRADE *
These uses have been tested in humans or animals. Safety and effectiveness have not always been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should be evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider. GRADE *


Taking iron orally with epoetin alfa (erythropoietin, EPO, Epogen?, Procrit?) is effective for treating anemia associated with chronic renal failure and chemotherapy.

 A


Taking iron orally with epoetin alfa (erythropoietin, EPO, Epogen?, Procrit?) is effective for treating anemia associated with chronic renal failure and chemotherapy.

 A


Ferrous sulfate (Feratab?, Fer-Iron?, Slow-FE?) is the standard treatment for treating iron deficiency anemia. Dextran-iron (INFeD?) is given intravenously by healthcare providers to restore adequate iron levels in bone marrow when oral iron therapy has failed.

 A


Ferrous sulfate (Feratab?, Fer-Iron?, Slow-FE?) is the standard treatment for treating iron deficiency anemia. Dextran-iron (INFeD?) is given intravenously by healthcare providers to restore adequate iron levels in bone marrow when oral iron therapy has failed.

 A


Taking iron orally seems to inhibit cough associated with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, such as captopril (Capoten?), enalapril (Vasotec?), and lisinopril (Prinivil?, Zestril?).

 B


Taking iron orally seems to inhibit cough associated with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, such as captopril (Capoten?), enalapril (Vasotec?), and lisinopril (Prinivil?, Zestril?).

 B


Iron supplementation has been shown to improve iron status in menstruating women.

 B


Iron supplementation has been shown to improve iron status in menstruating women.

 B


Iron supplements have been shown to help prevent iron deficiency anemia in pregnant women. Anemia in pregnant women is associated with adverse outcomes such as low birth weight, premature birth, and maternal mortality. Screening by a qualified healthcare provider is needed. Low doses are generally well tolerated and associated with better compliance.

 B


Iron supplements have been shown to help prevent iron deficiency anemia in pregnant women. Anemia in pregnant women is associated with adverse outcomes such as low birth weight, premature birth, and maternal mortality. Screening by a qualified healthcare provider is needed. Low doses are generally well tolerated and associated with better compliance.

 B


According to preliminary data, taking iron orally might improve symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). More research is necessary before a conclusion can be drawn.

 C


According to preliminary data, taking iron orally might improve symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). More research is necessary before a conclusion can be drawn.

 C


Limited evidence suggests that iron supplementation may reduce the frequency and severity of breath-holding attacks in children. Additional studies are needed to confirm these results.

 C


Limited evidence suggests that iron supplementation may reduce the frequency and severity of breath-holding attacks in children. Additional studies are needed to confirm these results.

 C


Ferrous sulfate may improve fatigue primarily in women with borderline or low serum ferritin concentrations. Further research is needed to confirm these results.

 C


Ferrous sulfate may improve fatigue primarily in women with borderline or low serum ferritin concentrations. Further research is needed to confirm these results.

 C


Mixed evidence exists with regard to the effects of iron supplementation on the growth of children. Further research is needed before conclusions can be drawn.

 C


Mixed evidence exists with regard to the effects of iron supplementation on the growth of children. Further research is needed before conclusions can be drawn.

 C


Taking iron by mouth seems to improve cognitive function related to iron deficiency in iron-deficient children and adolescents. Further research is needed to confirm the potential benefit of iron in this indication. Iron supplements are not recommended for improving cognitive performance in non-iron-deficient people.

 C


Taking iron by mouth seems to improve cognitive function related to iron deficiency in iron-deficient children and adolescents. Further research is needed to confirm the potential benefit of iron in this indication. Iron supplements are not recommended for improving cognitive performance in non-iron-deficient people.

 C


Currently, there is a lack of evidence supporting the use of iron to prevent infections in children. Further research is warranted in this area.

 C


Currently, there is a lack of evidence supporting the use of iron to prevent infections in children. Further research is warranted in this area.

 C


Iron deficiency may increase the risk of lead poisoning in children. However, the use of iron supplementation in lead poisoning should be reserved for those individuals who are truly iron deficient or for those individuals with continuing lead exposure, such as continued residence in lead-exposed housing.

 C


Iron deficiency may increase the risk of lead poisoning in children. However, the use of iron supplementation in lead poisoning should be reserved for those individuals who are truly iron deficient or for those individuals with continuing lead exposure, such as continued residence in lead-exposed housing.

 C


Scientific evidence on the effects of iron on childhood development is conflicting. Some data suggest that iron supplementation primarily promotes psychomotor development, while others suggest more of an influence on intelligence. Further research is needed in this area.

 C


Scientific evidence on the effects of iron on childhood development is conflicting. Some data suggest that iron supplementation primarily promotes psychomotor development, while others suggest more of an influence on intelligence. Further research is needed in this area.

 C


Limited evidence suggests that iron supplementation may improve physical performance in children. Further research is needed to confirm these results.

 C


Limited evidence suggests that iron supplementation may improve physical performance in children. Further research is needed to confirm these results.

 C


Iron supplementation as nutritional support during pregnancy has been studied. Limited evidence suggests that prenatal use of iron, either with folic acid or as part of a multimicronutrient combination, may be beneficial. Further research is needed to determine the specific role of iron for pregnancy support.

 C


Iron supplementation as nutritional support during pregnancy has been studied. Limited evidence suggests that prenatal use of iron, either with folic acid or as part of a multimicronutrient combination, may be beneficial. Further research is needed to determine the specific role of iron for pregnancy support.

 C


Preliminary studies suggest that iron supplementation can reverse mild anemia after exercise, improve energy, and enhance performance. However, other studies disagree. Further research is needed in this area before a conclusion can be made.

 C


Preliminary studies suggest that iron supplementation can reverse mild anemia after exercise, improve energy, and enhance performance. However, other studies disagree. Further research is needed in this area before a conclusion can be made.

 C


The results of early research indicate that elemental iron can adequately compensate for iron loss in females and males who donate whole blood up to four or six times per year, respectively.

 C


The results of early research indicate that elemental iron can adequately compensate for iron loss in females and males who donate whole blood up to four or six times per year, respectively.

 C


Intravenous high-dose iron sucrose therapy in patients with iron deficiency anemia due to gastrointestinal blood loss appears to be safe and therefore is a therapeutic option that may save time and improve patient compliance. More research is needed in this area.

 C


Intravenous high-dose iron sucrose therapy in patients with iron deficiency anemia due to gastrointestinal blood loss appears to be safe and therefore is a therapeutic option that may save time and improve patient compliance. More research is needed in this area.

 C


Early research reports that iron supplementation following elective hip or knee replacement surgery does not result in higher hemoglobin after surgery or a faster rate of increase in hemoglobin than placebo. However, recent evidence suggests that treatment of preoperative anemia with iron, with or without erythropoietin, reduced the need for blood transfusion and may contribute to improved patient outcomes. Further research is needed.

 C


Early research reports that iron supplementation following elective hip or knee replacement surgery does not result in higher hemoglobin after surgery or a faster rate of increase in hemoglobin than placebo. However, recent evidence suggests that treatment of preoperative anemia with iron, with or without erythropoietin, reduced the need for blood transfusion and may contribute to improved patient outcomes. Further research is needed.

 C


Adequate iron supplementation may be beneficial as an adjunct therapy with erythropoietin in the treatment of predialysis anemia. Predialysis anemia should be treated by a qualified healthcare provider. More research is needed in this area.

 C


Adequate iron supplementation may be beneficial as an adjunct therapy with erythropoietin in the treatment of predialysis anemia. Predialysis anemia should be treated by a qualified healthcare provider. More research is needed in this area.

 C
* Key to grades

A: Strong scientific evidence for this use
B: Good scientific evidence for this use
C: Unclear scientific evidence for this use
D: Fair scientific evidence for this use (it may not work)
F: Strong scientific evidence against this use (it likley does not work)
* Key to grades

A: Strong scientific evidence for this use
B: Good scientific evidence for this use
C: Unclear scientific evidence for this use
D: Fair scientific evidence for this use (it may not work)
F: Strong scientific evidence against this use (it likley does not work)

Tradition / Theory

The below uses are based on tradition, scientific theories, or limited research. They often have not been thoroughly tested in humans, and safety and effectiveness have not always been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should be evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider. There may be other proposed uses that are not listed below.

Dosing

Adults (18 years and older)
According to Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) reports developed by the Institute of Medicine's Food and Nutrition Board, the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for males (19- 50 years old) is eight milligrams daily; for females (19- 50 years old), it is 18 milligrams daily; for adults (51 years old and older), it is eight milligrams daily; for pregnant women (of all ages), it is 27 milligrams daily; and for breastfeeding women (19 years old and older), it is nine milligrams daily.
According to DRI reports developed by the Institute of Medicine's Food and Nutrition Board, the RDA for iron from a completely vegetarian diet should be adjusted as follows: 14 milligrams daily for adult men and postmenopausal women, 33 milligrams daily for premenopausal women, and 26 milligrams daily for adolescent girls.
For increased iron stores, 24 milligrams of iron daily or less in healthy adults did not result in higher iron transport or stores than in those who did not take supplements. However, 32 milligrams of iron daily resulted in higher iron stores than in those taking 24 milligrams daily or less.
For anemia of chronic disease, iron sulfate, fumarate, succinate, and ferritin, ranging from 4-6 milligrams per kilogram to 325 milligrams, has been taken daily by mouth for 2-3 months in patients with chronic kidney disease. Iron sucrose, dextran, gluconate, and ferumoxytol have been injected in the vein, in doses ranging from 72 doses of 31 milligrams, totaling 2,232 milligrams over six months, to 1,020 milligrams in one week.
For iron deficiency anemia, the following doses have been taken by mouth: sodium iron ethylenediaminetetra-acetate (NaFeEDTA), ranging from 4.9 to 10 milligrams daily for up to two years in an iron-deficient population; 120 milligrams of iron daily for three months; 100-975 milligrams of ferrous sulfate daily in divided doses for up to six weeks; 60-120 milligrams of iron proteinsuccinylate (ITF 282), 105 milligrams iron sulfate, or 52.5-105 milligrams of iron polystyrene sulfate daily for 60 days; and average daily doses of approximately 114 milligrams (in women receiving no other nutritional supplementation) and 132 milligrams (in women receiving other supplementation or antimalarial treatment) of elemental iron, for up to 20 weeks or longer. Also, 100-200 milligrams of iron dextran, 200 milligrams of iron sucrose, 125 milligrams of iron gluconate, and 20-200 milligrams of iron saccharate have been injected into the vein for six weeks.
For mental performance (infant and childhood development), 20 milligrams of elemental iron has been taken daily by mouth, from the 20th week of gestation until delivery, in pregnant women.
For prevention of iron deficiency anemia in pregnancy, the following doses have been taken daily by mouth: 20-50 milligrams of elemental iron for up to 28 weeks of pregnancy; 60-124 milligrams of iron daily; 27-225 milligrams of elemental iron daily; 60 milligrams of elemental iron every three days; and 160 milligrams every week.

Safety

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration does not strictly regulate herbs and supplements. There is no guarantee of strength, purity or safety of products, and effects may vary. You should always read product labels. If you have a medical condition, or are taking other drugs, herbs, or supplements, you should speak with a qualified healthcare provider before starting a new therapy. Consult a healthcare provider immediately if you experience side effects.

Interactions

Interactions with Drugs
Acetohydroxamic acid (AHA, Lithostat?) is prescribed to decrease urinary ammonia and may help with antibiotics to work or help with other kidney stone treatment. Use with iron supplements may cause either medicine to be less effective.
Allopurinol (Zyloprim?), a medication used to treat gout, may increase iron storage in the liver.
Aminosalicylic acid (para-aminosalicylic acid; PAS, Paser) may cause a malabsorption syndrome (weight loss, iron and vitamin depletion, excessive fat in the stools (steatorrhea)). A qualified healthcare provider should be contacted immediately if any of these symptoms are present.
Oral supplementation of ferrous sulfate appears to cause cough associated with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, such as captopril (Capoten?), enalapril (Vasotec?), and lisinopril (Prinivil?, Zestril?), to subside.
Antacids may reduce iron absorption. Clinically significant effects are unlikely with adequate dietary iron intake.
Iron has been found to decrease the absorption of fluoroquinolone and tetracycline antibiotics. Fluoroquinolones include ciprofloxacin (Cipro?), levofloxacin (Levaquin?), ofloxacin (Floxin?), and others. Some of the tetracycline antibiotics include doxycycline (Vibramycin?), minocycline (Minocin?), and tetracycline (Achromycin?).
Regular use of aspirin may contribute to iron deficiency in the elderly.
Preliminary research has shown that concurrent iron administration inhibits the absorption of clodronate, a bisphosphonate drug.
Chloramphenicol (Chloromycetin?) can reduce the response to iron therapy in iron deficiency anemia.
Cholestyramine (Questran?) may bind iron in the gut and reduce its absorption.
Iron supplements and dimercaprol may combine in the body to form a chemical that is harmful to the kidneys.
H2 blockers such as cimetidine (Tagamet?), ranitidine (Zantac?), famotidine (Pepcid?), or nizatidine (Axid?) may reduce iron absorption. According to expert opinion, iron supplements are not usually required unless high doses of H2 blockers are being used.
Bone marrow iron deposits have been shown to decrease significantly in patients on human recombinant erythropoietin therapy.
Desferrioxamine and deferiprone are both iron-chelating drugs that lower iron levels.
There is some evidence in healthy people that iron forms chelates with levodopa (Sinemet?) and reduces the amount of levodopa absorbed.
Iron can decrease the absorption and efficacy of levothyroxine (Levoxyl?, Synthroid?) by forming insoluble complexes in the gastrointestinal tract.
Iron can decrease the absorption of methyldopa (Aldomet?), resulting in increases in blood pressure.
Some evidence suggests that oral iron supplements markedly reduce absorption of mycophenolate mofetil (CellCept?). However, other studies suggest that mycophenolate pharmacokinetics is not affected by iron supplementation.
NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen (Advil?), naproxen (Aleve?), or ketorolac (Toradol?), may cause mucosal damage and bleeding throughout the gastrointestinal tract. Chronic blood loss associated with long-term use of these agents may contribute to iron deficiency anemia. Iron-rich food intake may be advised as an alternative.
There is some evidence that pancreatic enzyme supplements, such as Cotazym?, Creon?, Pancrease?, Ultrase?, and Viokase?, may reduce iron absorption and contribute to iron deficiency.
Oral iron supplements may reduce absorption of penicillamine (Cuprimine?, Depen?), probably due to chelate formation.
Long-term therapy with proton pump inhibitors, such as omeprazole (Prilosec?), lansoprazole (Prevacid?), or esomeprazole (Nexium?), has been associated with iron deficiency.

Attribution

This information is based on a systematic review of scientific literature edited and peer-reviewed by contributors to the Natural Standard Research Collaboration (www.naturalstandard.com).

Bibliography

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Wang, B., Zhan, S., Xia, Y., et al. Effect of sodium iron ethylenediaminetetra-acetate (NaFeEDTA) on haemoglobin and serum ferritin in iron-deficient populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised and quasi-randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr 2008;100(6):1169-1178.
Weatherall M, Maling TJ. Oral iron therapy for anaemia after orthopaedic surgery: randomized clinical trial. ANZ J Surg 2004;74(12):1049-1051.
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Zimmermann MB, Muthayya S, Moretti D, et al. Iron fortification reduces blood lead levels in children in Bangalore, India. Pediatrics 2006 Jun;117(6):2014-21.