Bergamot

Bergamot/Drug Interactions:

  • AnalgesicsAnalgesics: In animals, intraplantar injection of bergamot essential oil dose-dependently inhibited the acute nociceptive behavioral response (i.e., licking and biting) to injected capsaicin (24). Moreover, the injection of linalool and linalyl acetate, volatile components of bergamot essential oil, demonstrated an even stronger antinociceptive behavioral response than bergamot oil alone.
  • Antianxiety agentsAntianxiety agents: In healthy humans, bergamot oil has been shown to lower stress when administered as a combination aromatherapy (85) and increase perceived ratings of calmness and relaxation when administered topically in combination with lavender (69).
  • AntibioticsAntibiotics: In vitro and in food systems research, bergamot oil has been shown to be active against Arcobacter butzleri (26; 25; 9). When administered in combination with orange essential oil, bergamot inhibited the growth of vancomycin-resistant and vancomycin-sensitive strains of Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis (29). The effects of bergamot with antibiotics are not well understood.
  • AntidiabeticsAntidiabetics: In animals and humans, oral bergamot extract lowered blood glucose (46).
  • AntifungalsAntifungals: In vitro and in food systems research, bergamot oil has been shown to be active against Candida spp. (28). The effects of bergamot with antifungals are not well understood.
  • AntihypertensivesAntihypertensives: In healthy humans, a topical blend of bergamot and lavender essential oils decreased blood pressure (69).
  • Anti-inflammatoriesAnti-inflammatories: The coumarins found in bergapten might be used for such medicinal purposes as inhibiting lipid peroxidation, generating neutrophil-dependent anion superoxides, and suppressing the activity of both interleukin-8 (IL-8) and COX-2, important anti-inflammatory activities (30; 31; 40; 32). The effects of bergamot with anti-inflammatory agents are not well understood.
  • AntilipemicsAntilipemics: In animals and humans, oral bergamot extract was shown to increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, inhibit HMG-CoA reductase activity, and decrease levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (46).
  • AntineoplasticsAntineoplastics: In human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells in vitro, bergamot essential oil was shown to concentration-dependently inhibit Akt-mediated cellular proliferation (86).
  • Cardiovascular agentsCardiovascular agents: In animals, bergamot antioxidants may prevent neointima proliferation (87). In healthy humans, a topical blend of bergamot and lavender essential oils decreased both pulse and blood pressure (69).
  • Cytochrome P450-metabolized agentsCytochrome P450-metabolized agents: In vitro, bergamottin and 6',7'-dihydroxybergamottin, both found in grapefruit juice, inhibited cytochrome P450 3A4 and affected the metabolism of a variety of pharmaceutical drugs, including felodipine (66; 67; 68; 47).
  • FelodipineFelodipine: In human pharmacokinetic research, grapefruit bergamottin reduced felodipine metabolism (increased the area under the plasma concentration time curve (AUC)) and increased the plasma peak drug concentration (47).
  • ImmunosuppressantsImmunosuppressants: The coumarins found in bergapten might be used for such medicinal purposes as inhibiting lipid peroxidation and generating neutrophil-dependent anion superoxides, important immunosuppressor activities (30). The effects of bergamot with immunosuppressants are not well understood.
  • PhotosensitizersPhotosensitizers: In humans, animals and in vitro, bergamot oil has been found to be phototoxic and capable of producing erythema and Berloque dermatitis (55; 56; 57; 49; 50; 4; 10; 51; 58; 7; 59; 60; 61; 62; 63; 64; 65; 8).

    • Bergamot/Herb/Supplement Interactions:

  • AnalgesicsAnalgesics: In animals, intraplantar injection of bergamot essential oil dose-dependently inhibited the acute nociceptive behavioral response (i.e., licking and biting) to injected capsaicin (24). Moreover, the injection of linalool and linalyl acetate, volatile components of bergamot essential oil, demonstrated an even stronger antinociceptive behavioral response than bergamot oil alone.
  • Antianxiety agentsAntianxiety agents: In healthy humans, bergamot oil has been shown to lower stress when administered as a combination aromatherapy (85) and increase perceived ratings of calmness and relaxation when administered topically in combination with lavender (69).
  • AntibacterialsAntibacterials: In vitro and in food systems research, bergamot oil has been shown to be active against Arcobacter butzleri (26; 25; 9). When administered in combination with orange essential oil, bergamot inhibited the growth of vancomycin-resistant and vancomycin-sensitive strains of Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis (29). The effects of bergamot with antibiotics are not well understood.
  • AntifungalsAntifungals: In vitro and in food systems research, bergamot oil has been shown to be active against Candida spp. (28). The effects of bergamot with antifungals are not well understood.
  • Anti-inflammatoriesAnti-inflammatories: The coumarins found in bergapten might be used for such medicinal purposes as inhibiting lipid peroxidation, generating neutrophil-dependent anion superoxides, and suppressing the activity of both interleukin-8 (IL-8) and COX-2, important anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressor activities (30; 31; 40; 32). The effects of bergamot with anti-inflammatory agents are not well understood.
  • AntilipemicsAntilipemics: In animals and humans, oral bergamot extract increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, inhibited HMG-CoA reductase activity, and decreased levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (46).
  • AntineoplasticsAntineoplastics: In human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells in vitro, bergamot essential oil was shown to concentration-dependently inhibit Akt-mediated cellular proliferation (86).
  • AntioxidantsAntioxidants: In animals, bergamot antioxidants may prevent neointima proliferation and thereby help heal vascular disorders (87). In in vitro research, bergamot essential oil prevented the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and the activation of calpain, GSK-3beta, and TNF-alpha (13; 31). In animals, bergamot together with boxthorn, was found to increase the activity of superoxide dismutase and the amount of collagen, and decrease the amount of malondialdehyde in the skin of mice (45; 5; 10).
  • Cardiovascular agentsCardiovascular agents: In animals, bergamot antioxidants may prevent neointima proliferation (87). In healthy humans, a topical blend of bergamot and lavender essential oils decreased both pulse and blood pressure (69).
  • Cytochrome P450-metabolized agentsCytochrome P450-metabolized agents: In vitro, bergamottin and 6',7'-dihydroxybergamottin, both found in grapefruit juice, inhibited cytochrome P450 3A4 and thereby affected the metabolism of a variety of herbs (66; 67; 68; 47).
  • HypoglycemicsHypoglycemics: In animals and humans, oral bergamot extract lowered blood glucose (46).
  • HypotensivesHypotensives: In healthy humans, a topical blend of bergamot and lavender essential oils decreased blood pressure (69).
  • ImmunosuppressantsImmunosuppressants: The coumarins found in bergapten might be used for such medicinal purposes as inhibiting lipid peroxidation and generating neutrophil-dependent anion superoxides, important anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressor activities (30). The effects of bergamot with immunosuppressants are not well understood.
  • LavenderLavender: In healthy humans, a topical blend of bergamot and lavender essential oils decreased both pulse and blood pressure (69) and increased perceived ratings of calmness and relaxation (69). Theoretically, bergamot and lavender may interact synergistically.
  • OrangeOrange: In vitro, bergamot essential oil administered in combination with orange essential oil inhibited the growth of vancomycin-resistant and vancomycin-sensitive strains of Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis (29).
  • PhotosensitizersPhotosensitizers: In humans, animals and in vitro, bergamot oil has been found to be phototoxic and capable of producing erythema and Berloque dermatitis (55; 56; 57; 49; 50; 4; 10; 51; 58; 7; 59; 60; 61; 62; 63; 64; 65; 8).
  • PrebioticsPrebiotics: In vitro studies demonstrated that a pectin oligosaccharide-rich extract enzymatically derived from bergamot peel increased the number of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, and decreased the clostridial population (41).

    • Bergamot/Food Interactions:

  • Foods that contain bergamot or its constituents (e.g., Earl grey tea, grapefruit juice, celery, parsnips, Seville orange juice)Foods that contain bergamot or its constituents (e.g., Earl grey tea, grapefruit juice, celery, parsnips, Seville orange juice): Bergamot contains a variety of coumarins (75; 76). Thus, ingestion of bergamot would increase coumarin intake. In a case report, excessive consumption of bergamot-containing Earl Grey tea induced muscle cramps, fasciculations, paraesthesias, and blurred vision in a man (83). In vitro, bergamottin and 6',7'-dihydroxybergamottin, both found in grapefruit juice, inhibited cytochrome P450 3A4 and affected the metabolism of a variety of pharmaceutical drugs (66; 67; 68; 47).
  • OrangeOrange: In vitro, bergamot essential oil administered in combination with orange essential oil inhibited the growth of vancomycin-resistant and vancomycin-sensitive strains of Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis (29).
  • Prebiotics (e.g., soy beans, jicama, chicory root)Prebiotics (e.g., soy beans, jicama, chicory root): In vitro studies demonstrated that a pectin oligosaccharide-rich extract enzymatically derived from bergamot peel increased the number of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, and decreased the clostridial population (41).

    • Bergamot/Lab Interactions:

  • Blood pressureBlood pressure: In healthy humans, a topical blend of bergamot and lavender essential oils decreased both pulse and blood pressure (69).
  • GlucoseGlucose: In animals and humans, oral bergamot extract lowered blood glucose (46).
  • LipidsLipids: In animals and humans, oral bergamot extract increased HDL cholesterol, inhibited HMG-CoA reductase activity, and decreased levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol (46).