Ginkgo

Ginkgo/Drug Interactions:

  • Alzheimer's agentsAlzheimer's agents: In theory, drugs such as donepezil (Aricept?) and tacrine (Cognex?) may have an additive effect when used concurrently with Ginkgo, potentially precipitating cholinergic effects. However, Ginkgo supplementation had a lack of a major impact on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of donepezil in human research (410). In human research, pooled analyses of research reported significant benefits over placebo (328; 200; 182; 327; 253; 15; 315; 328), and evidence from a retrospective case-control study suggests possible protective effects of Ginkgo against the development of Alzheimer's disease, although these results are preliminary (411).
  • AnalgesicsAnalgesics: In animal research, EGb 761? inhibited inflammation and hyperalgesia when given locally and centrally (56), and Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) attenuated hyperalgesia in a peripheral neuropathy model (412).
  • AntiandrogensAntiandrogens: According to secondary sources, Ginkgo may interact with antiandrogen agents.
  • Antianxiety agentsAntianxiety agents: In human research, Ginkgo offered benefit to individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (334; 179; 180).
  • AntiasthmaticsAntiasthmatics: In human research, a concentrated Ginkgo leaf extract, as well as the Ginkgo fraction BN 52063, offered benefit in terms of symptom reduction in asthmatic patients (413; 414; 415; 416). Also, results from a study using a combination product containing Ginkgo, AKL1, suggested that this agent may aid in treatment of patients with asthma (417).
  • AnticholinergicsAnticholinergics: Use cautiously in individuals with anticholinergic agents, based on a theory suggesting that drugs such as donepezil (Aricept?) and tacrine (Cognex?) may have an additive effect when used concurrently with Ginkgo, potentially precipitating cholinergic effects.
  • Anticoagulants and antiplateletsAnticoagulants and antiplatelets: Bleeding, hemorrhage, and hematomas, possibly or likely associated with Ginkgo use, have been reported in clinical trials, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and clinical trials (2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17; 18; 19; 20; 21; 22); however, other studies have suggested a lack of effect on bleeding rates (256; 418). Some, but not all, studies have suggested inhibitory effects of Ginkgo on platelet function or coagulation parameters (399; 400; 401; 402; 419; 420; 421; 205; 422). According to studies mentioned in a systematic review but without a complete summary, Ginkgo may interact with aspirin and warfarin (4).
  • AnticonvulsantsAnticonvulsants: Ingestion of Ginkgo seeds has been associated with seizure, lowered seizure threshold, and antagonization of the effect of antiseizure therapies (174). The protective effects of sodium valproate and carbamazepine on seizures in mice was diminished with the administration of Ginkgo biloba (423). There exist examples of case reports reporting seizure following ingestion of Ginkgo nuts (170; 171) and supplements (172; 173).
  • Antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)Antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs): Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibition by Ginkgo was reported in one animal study (207) but was not confirmed by subsequent research in animals (208) or in humans (209). According to preclinical research, Ginkgo may act additively with MAOIs, with a risk of causing serotonin syndrome, a condition characterized by rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, restlessness, and diaphoresis (210).
  • Antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)Antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): Based on preclinical research, Ginkgo may act additively with SSRIs, with a risk of causing serotonin syndrome, a condition characterized by rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, restlessness, and diaphoresis (210). Human data are lacking in this area. Ginkgo has also been reported to relieve genital anesthesia associated with the SSRI fluoxetine (424).
  • AntidiabeticsAntidiabetics: Ginkgo increased plasma insulin concentrations in healthy volunteers (177; 205), lacked an effect in another human study (203), and decreased these concentrations in subjects with type 2 diabetes (206). Effects on serum glucose concentrations were lacking (203; 384).
  • AntiestrogensAntiestrogens: Ginkgo had antiestrogenic effects in vitro (425), although in human research, effects on circulating steroidal hormones were lacking (426).
  • AntihistaminesAntihistamines: In humans, Ginkgo had both allergenic and antiallergenic effects (40; 427).
  • AntihypertensivesAntihypertensives: In human research, Ginkgo decreased or lacked effect on systolic and diastolic blood pressure (177; 384; 262). However, according to secondary sources, paradoxical hypertension has been documented in a male patient taking a thiazide diuretic and Ginkgo.
  • Anti-inflammatoriesAnti-inflammatories: Ginkgetin, a flavonoid from Ginkgo, inhibited cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes (428). In animal research, EGb 761? inhibited inflammation and hyperalgesia when given locally and centrally (56). In human research, Ginkgo use decreased interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha (368).
  • AntilipemicsAntilipemics: In clinical trials, Ginkgo use was associated with an improvement in blood lipids in some (384) but not all (203) studies.
  • AntineoplasticsAntineoplastics: 5-Fluorouracil induced adverse effects, and cyclosporine nephrotoxicity may be alleviated by Ginkgo, although evidence is preliminary in this area (429). Egb761? may be used for the prevention and reduction of acute doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity (430). In human research, Ginkgo biloba exocarp polysaccharides (GBEP) induced apoptosis and differentiation of tumor cells (333); however, Ginkgo lacked an effect on the development of cancer in patients taking Ginkgo as part of a clinical trial with memory outcomes (272).
  • AntipsychoticsAntipsychotics: In human research, Ginkgo offered additional benefit in patients with schizophrenia (372; 185; 373; 374). According to secondary sources, Ginkgo may reduce some side effects of antipsychotic drugs, although scientific data in this area are lacking.
  • Antitinnitus agentsAntitinnitus agents: In human research, Ginkgo decreased tinnitus symptoms (377).
  • Antivertigo agentsAntivertigo agents: In human research, Ginkgo decreased symptoms of vertigo (284).
  • Cardiovascular agentsCardiovascular agents: In human research, GBE induced the production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (perhaps involved in myocardial protection) (431). In animal research, an ethanol extract of Ginkgo biloba leaves reduced heart rate and contractility, as well as coronary flow (432). In vitro, Ginkgolide B improved the contractile function of rat hearts treated by ischemia-reperfusion (433). In a systematic review, interactions between Ginkgo and cardiovascular agents were discussed (434).
  • CilostazolCilostazol: In human research, Ginkgo biloba potentiated bleeding time in combination with cilostazol; effects on platelet count, platelet aggregation, and clotting time were lacking (435).
  • ClozapineClozapine: In human research, GBE enhanced the effects of clozapine on negative symptoms in patients with schizophrenia (374).
  • Cognitive agentsCognitive agents: Evidence in support of cognitive benefits in humans without dementia is mixed (313; 314; 259; 254; 229; 261; 361; 315).
  • ColchicineColchicine: Colchicine has been isolated from commercial preparations of Ginkgo biloba (390).
  • CYP450-modifying agentsCYP450-modifying agents: Although Ginkgo and its constituents were found to affect CYP activity in vitro (211; 212; 213), in human research, Ginkgo altered levels of only some, but not all, CYP450-metabolized agents in the blood, and many studies suggest a lack of effect on CYP activity (214; 215; 216; 217; 212; 218; 219; 220; 221; 222; 223; 224).
  • Diuretics, thiazideDiuretics, thiazide: Although paradoxical hypertension was documented in a male patient taking a thiazide diuretic and Ginkgo, according to secondary sources, Ginkgo decreased systolic and diastolic blood pressure in healthy volunteers (177; 178).
  • Drugs that may lower seizure thresholdDrugs that may lower seizure threshold: Ingestion of Ginkgo seeds has been associated with seizure, lowered seizure threshold, and antagonization of the effect of antiseizure therapies (174). The protective effects of sodium valproate and carbamazepine on seizures in mice was diminished with the administration of Ginkgo biloba (423). There exist examples of case reports reporting seizure following ingestion of Ginkgo nuts (170; 171) and supplements (172; 173).
  • EfavirenzEfavirenz: In a case report of a patient with HIV using efavirenz, use of Ginkgo was suggested to be responsible for the virological failure that resulted (436).
  • Exercise performance enhancement agentsExercise performance enhancement agents: In human research, the combination of Rhodiola crenulata and Ginkgo biloba enhanced endurance performance in healthy male volunteers (437).
  • Hemorrhoid agentsHemorrhoid agents: In human research, Ginkgo in a combination product also containing troxerutin-heptaminol-Hce was shown to be effective in the treatment of patients with acute hemorrhoidal attacks (438).
  • Hormonal agentsHormonal agents: Ginkgo had antiestrogenic effects in vitro (425), although in human research, effects on circulating steroidal hormones were lacking (426).
  • IbuprofenIbuprofen: According to a review, Ginkgo interacts with ibuprofen (439).
  • Impotence agentsImpotence agents: In human research, Ginkgo has been used for treatment of erectile dysfunction (440; 319).
  • IodineIodine: In human research, Ginkgo decreased genotoxicity associated with iodine-131 (339).
  • LithiumLithium: According to studies mentioned in a systematic review but without a complete summary, Ginkgo may interact with lithium (4).
  • Neurologic agentsNeurologic agents: In human research, Ginkgo offered neurologic improvements in patients with multiple sclerosis (313). In human research, Ginkgo biloba resulted in cognitive activator profiles, according to recordings of computer-analyzed EEGs (441). In animal research and in vitro, Ginkgo had neuroprotective effects (442; 443; 444).
  • NifedipineNifedipine: In human research, although mean changes in the pharmacokinetics of nifedipine were lacking following GBE ingestion, in two subjects, concentrations were doubled, resulting in severe and longer lasting headaches, dizziness or hot flashes, and increased heart rate (445; 446).
  • Ophthalmic agentsOphthalmic agents: Although improved vision was observed in a case report (59), effects of Ginkgo on ocular blood flow were lacking in clinical research (447).
  • OlanzapineOlanzapine: In human research, Ginkgo decreased antioxidant markers and schizophrenic symptoms in patients on olanzapine (372).
  • PrednisonePrednisone: In human research, Ginkgo was as effective as prednisone for pulmonary interstitial fibrosis (368).
  • RisperidoneRisperidone: According to a review, Ginkgo interacts with risperidone (439).
  • Renally eliminated agentsRenally eliminated agents: In human research, Ginkgo use was associated with a decrease in urinary albumin excretion (384).
  • Respiratory agentsRespiratory agents: In human research, Ginkgo improved lung function in patients with pulmonary interstitial fibrosis (368).
  • RofecoxibRofecoxib: According to a review, Ginkgo interacts with rofecoxib (439).
  • Sexual performance agentsSexual performance agents: Although Ginkgo is of interest for increased sexual performance, evidence in support of this use is lacking in general in human trials (4; 316; 195; 232).
  • TiclopidineTiclopidine: In human research, Ginkgo biloba extract lacked an effect on bleeding time, platelet aggregation, and ticlopidine pharmacokinetic parameters in healthy individuals also taking ticlopine (219; 220; 221).
  • TrazodoneTrazodone: There is a case report of "coma" in an elderly Alzheimer's patient taking trazodone and Ginkgo; however, the patient responded to flumazenil, which raises questions about this effect not being related to Ginkgo (405).
  • VasodilatorsVasodilators: Studies, including in humans, have suggested that Ginkgo causes vascular relaxation and increases in blood flow (181; 448; 449; 450; 381; 451; 383; 262; 452; 453).

    • Ginkgo/Herb/Supplement Interactions:

  • Alzheimer's agentsAlzheimer's agents: In theory, drugs such as donepezil (Aricept?) and tacrine (Cognex?) may have an additive effect when used concurrently with Ginkgo, potentially precipitating cholinergic effects. However, Ginkgo supplementation had a lack of a major impact on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of donepezil in human research (410). In human research, pooled analyses of research reported significant benefits over placebo (328; 200; 182; 327; 253; 15; 315; 328), and evidence from a retrospective case-control study suggests possible protective effects of Ginkgo against the development of Alzheimer's disease, although these results are preliminary (411).
  • AnalgesicsAnalgesics: In animal research, EGb 761? inhibited inflammation and hyperalgesia when given locally and centrally (56), and GBE attenuated hyperalgesia in a peripheral neuropathy model (412).
  • AntiandrogenicsAntiandrogenics: According to secondary sources, Ginkgo may interact with antiandrogen herbs and supplements.
  • Antianxiety agentsAntianxiety agents: In human research, Ginkgo offered benefit to individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (334; 179; 180).
  • AntiarthriticsAntiarthritics: According to secondary sources, Ginkgo may interact with antiarthritic herbs or supplements.
  • AntiasthmaticsAntiasthmatics: In human research, a concentrated Ginkgo leaf extract, as well as the Ginkgo fraction BN 52063, was shown to offer benefit in terms of symptom reduction in asthmatic patients (413; 414; 415; 416). Also, results from a study using a combination product containing Ginkgo, AKL1, suggested that this agent may aid in treatment of patients with asthma (417).
  • AnticholinergicsAnticholinergics: Use cautiously in individuals with anticholinergic agents, based on a theory suggesting that drugs such as donepezil (Aricept?) and tacrine (Cognex?) may have an additive effect when used concurrently with Ginkgo, potentially precipitating cholinergic effects.
  • Anticoagulants and antiplateletsAnticoagulants and antiplatelets: Bleeding, hemorrhage, and hematomas, possibly or likely associated with Ginkgo use, have been reported in clinical trials, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and clinical trials (2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17; 18; 19; 20; 21; 22); however, other studies have suggested a lack of effect on bleeding rates (256; 418). Some, but not all, studies have suggested inhibitory effects of Ginkgo on platelet function or coagulation parameters (399; 400; 401; 402; 419; 420; 421; 205; 422).
  • AnticonvulsantsAnticonvulsants: Ingestion of Ginkgo seeds has been associated with seizure, lowered seizure threshold, and antagonization of the effect of antiseizure therapies (174). The protective effects of sodium valproate and carbamazepine on seizures in mice was diminished with the administration of Ginkgo biloba (423). There exist examples of case reports reporting seizure following ingestion of Ginkgo nuts (170; 171) and supplements (172; 173).
  • Antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)Antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs): Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibition by Ginkgo was reported in one animal study (207) but was not confirmed by subsequent research in animals (208) or in humans (209). According to preclinical research, Ginkgo may act additively with MAOIs, with a risk of causing serotonin syndrome, a condition characterized by rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, restlessness, and diaphoresis (210).
  • Antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)Antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): According to preclinical research, Ginkgo may act additively with SSRIs, with a risk of causing serotonin syndrome, a condition characterized by rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, restlessness, and diaphoresis (210). Human data are lacking in this area. Ginkgo has also been reported to relieve genital anesthesia associated with the SSRI fluoxetine (424).
  • AntihistaminesAntihistamines: In humans, Ginkgo had both allergenic and antiallergenic effects (40; 427).
  • AntihypertensivesAntihypertensives: In human research, Ginkgo decreased or lacked an effect on systolic and diastolic blood pressure (177; 384; 262). However, according to secondary sources, paradoxical hypertension has been documented in a male patient taking a thiazide diuretic and Ginkgo.
  • Anti-inflammatoriesAnti-inflammatories: Ginkgetin, a flavonoid from Ginkgo, inhibited cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes (428). In animal research, EGb 761? inhibited inflammation and hyperalgesia when given locally and centrally (56). In human research, Ginkgo decreased IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-alpha (368).
  • AntilipemicsAntilipemics: In clinical trials, Ginkgo use was associated with an improvement in blood lipids in some (384) but not all (203) studies.
  • AntineoplasticsAntineoplastics: 5-Fluorouracil induced adverse effects, and cyclosporine nephrotoxicity may be alleviated by Ginkgo, although evidence is preliminary in this area (429). Egb761? may be used for the prevention and reduction of acute doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity (430). In human research, GBEP induced apoptosis and differentiation of tumor cells (333); however, Ginkgo lacked effect on development of cancer in patients taking Ginkgo as part of a clinical trial with memory outcomes (272).
  • AntioxidantsAntioxidants: In human research, Ginkgo-containing products had antioxidant effects (454; 455; 456; 457).
  • AntipsychoticsAntipsychotics: In human research, Ginkgo offered additional benefit in patients with schizophrenia (372; 185; 373; 374). According to secondary sources, Ginkgo may reduce some side effects of antipsychotic drugs, although scientific data in this area are lacking.
  • Antitinnitus agentsAntitinnitus agents: In human research, Ginkgo decreased tinnitus symptoms (377).
  • Antivertigo agentsAntivertigo agents: In human research, Ginkgo decreased symptoms of vertigo (284).
  • AphrodisiacsAphrodisiacs: Although Ginkgo is of interest for increased sexual performance, evidence in support of this use is lacking in general in human trials (4; 316; 195; 232).
  • Athletic performance enhancersAthletic performance enhancers: Traditional uses of Ginkgo include exercise performance enhancement. Thus, Ginkgo may have additive effects with exercise performance enhancement agents.
  • Cardiovascular agentsCardiovascular agents: In human research, GBE induced the production of VEGF (perhaps involved in myocardial protection) (431). In animal research, an ethanol extract of Ginkgo biloba leaves reduced the heart rate and contractility, as well as the coronary flow (432). In vitro, Ginkgolide B improved the contractile function of rat hearts treated by ischemia-reperfusion (433). In a systematic review, interactions between Ginkgo and cardiovascular agents were discussed (434).
  • Cognitive agentsCognitive agents: Evidence in support of cognitive benefits in humans without dementia is mixed (313; 314; 259; 254; 229; 261; 361; 315).
  • CYP450-modifying agentsCYP450-modifying agents: Although, Ginkgo and its constituents were found to affect CYP activity in vitro (211; 212; 213), in human research, Ginkgo altered levels of only some, but not all, CYP450-metabolized agents in the blood, and many studies suggest a lack of effect on CYP activity (214; 215; 216; 217; 212; 218; 219; 220; 221; 222; 223; 224).
  • DiureticsDiuretics: Although paradoxical hypertension was documented in a male patient taking a thiazide diuretic and Ginkgo according to secondary sources, Ginkgo decreased systolic and diastolic blood pressure in healthy volunteers (177; 178).
  • GingerGinger: A combination of Ginkgo and ginger in a functional beverage altered electroencephalogram (EEG) readings in healthy individuals (458).
  • Hemorrhoid agentsHemorrhoid agents: In human research, Ginkgo in a combination product also containing troxerutin-heptaminol-Hce was shown to be effective in the treatment of patients with acute hemorrhoidal attacks (438).
  • Hormonal agentsHormonal agents: Ginkgo had antiestrogenic effects in vitro (425), although in human research, effects on circulating steroidal hormones were lacking (426).
  • Hormone replacement therapyHormone replacement therapy: Ginkgo had antiestrogenic effects in vitro (425), although in human research, effects on circulating steroidal hormones were lacking (426).
  • HypoglycemicsHypoglycemics: Ginkgo has been found to increase plasma insulin concentrations in healthy volunteers (177; 205), lack effect in another human study (203), and decrease these concentrations in subjects with type 2 diabetes (206). Effects on serum glucose concentrations were lacking (203; 384).
  • Impotence agentsImpotence agents: In human research, Ginkgo has been used for treatment of erectile dysfunction (440; 319).
  • IodineIodine: In human research, Ginkgo decreased genotoxicity associated with iodine-131 (339).
  • Neurologic agentsNeurologic agents: In human research, Ginkgo offered neurologic improvements in patients with multiple sclerosis (313). In human research, Ginkgo biloba resulted in cognitive activator profiles, according to recordings of computer-analyzed EEGs (441). In animal research and in vitro, Ginkgo had neuroprotective effects (442; 443; 444).
  • Ophthalmic agentsOphthalmic agents: Although improved vision was observed in a case report (59), effects of Ginkgo on ocular blood flow were lacking in clinical research (447).
  • Renally eliminated agentsRenally eliminated agents: In human research, Ginkgo use was associated with a decrease in urinary albumin excretion (384).
  • Respiratory agentsRespiratory agents: In human research, Ginkgo improved lung function in patients with pulmonary interstitial fibrosis (368).
  • Seizure threshold-lowering agentsSeizure threshold-lowering agents: Ingestion of Ginkgo seeds has been associated with seizure, lowered seizure threshold, and antagonization of the effect of antiseizure therapies (174). The protective effects of sodium valproate and carbamazepine on seizures in mice was diminished with the administration of Ginkgo biloba (423). There exist examples of case reports reporting seizure following ingestion of Ginkgo nuts (170; 171) and supplements (172; 173).
  • St. John's wortSt. John's wort: According to unsubstantiated reports, side effects such as muscle stiffness, rapid heartbeats, fever, restlessness, and sweating may occur if Ginkgo is used with St. John's wort.
  • VasodilatorsVasodilators: Studies, including in humans, have suggested that Ginkgo causes vascular relaxation and increases blood flow (181; 448; 449; 450; 381; 451; 383; 262; 452; 453).
  • Yohimbe bark extract, yohimbineYohimbe bark extract, yohimbine: Ginkgo may potentiate the actions of other agents used in the management of erectile dysfunction, such as yohimbe bark extract (319).

    • Ginkgo/Food Interactions:

  • Tyramine-containing foodsTyramine-containing foods: Based on the possible monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) properties of Ginkgo (suggested in some animal research but refuted in other animal and human studies) (207; 208; 209), high doses of Ginkgo may lead to hypertensive crisis when ingested with tyramine-containing foods such as wine or cheeses.

    • Ginkgo/Lab Interactions:

  • Blood lipidsBlood lipids: In clinical trials, Ginkgo use was associated with an improvement in blood lipids in some (384) but not all (203) studies.
  • Blood pressureBlood pressure: Ginkgo decreased or lacked an effect on systolic and diastolic blood pressure in human research (177; 203; 384; 262).
  • C-reactive protein (CRP)C-reactive protein (CRP): Ginkgo increased CRP concentrations in a preliminary study of healthy volunteers (177; 205) and lacked an effect in another human study (203). In human research, CRP was associated with white blood cell count in patients treated with Ginkgo biloba (459).
  • Coagulation panelCoagulation panel: Bleeding, hemorrhage, and hematomas, possibly or likely associated with Ginkgo use, have been reported in clinical trials, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and clinical trials (2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17; 18; 19; 20; 21; 22); however, other studies have suggested a lack of effect on bleeding rates (256; 418). Some, but not all, studies have suggested inhibitory effects of Ginkgo on platelet function or coagulation parameters (399; 400; 401; 402; 419; 420; 421; 205; 422).
  • CortisolCortisol: In human research, a combination of Rhodiola crenulata and Ginkgo biloba prevented an increase in serum cortisol and a decrease in the ratio of testosterone to cortisol (437).
  • CreatinineCreatinine: In a clinical trial, Ginkgo use was associated with an improvement in creatinine clearance (384).
  • CytokinesCytokines: In human research, Ginkgo use decreased in IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-alpha (368).
  • FibrinogenFibrinogen: In human research, GBE decreased plasma fibrinogen concentration (453).
  • GlucoseGlucose: In human research, effects on serum glucose concentrations were lacking (203; 384).
  • Heart rateHeart rate: In animal research, an ethanol extract of Ginkgo biloba leaves reduced heart rate and contractility, as well as coronary flow (432). In human research, effects on heart rate were lacking (262).
  • HematocritHematocrit: In human research, Ginkgo increased hematocrit (456).
  • Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C)Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C): In human research, Ginkgo lacked effect on HbA1C levels (203) or decreased HbA1C (460).
  • HomocysteineHomocysteine: In human research, use of an antioxidant product containing Ginkgo reduced levels of homocysteine (454).
  • Insulin levelsInsulin levels: Ginkgo increased plasma insulin concentrations in healthy volunteers (177; 205), lacked an effect in another human study (203), and decreased these concentrations in subjects with type 2 diabetes (206).
  • Liver function testsLiver function tests: In human research, Ginkgo lacked effect on liver function tests (203).
  • Thyroid functionThyroid function: In human research, GBE lacked effects on thyroid function tests, including serum thyroglobulin (Tg) and anti-Tg antibody levels (461).
  • Urinary albuminUrinary albumin: In a clinical trial, Ginkgo use was associated with a decrease in urinary albumin excretion (384).
  • Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF): In human research, GBE induced the production of VEGF (431).
  • Visual field indicesVisual field indices: In human research, GBE improved visual field indices (260).
  • Von Willebrand factorVon Willebrand factor: In human research, GBE decreased the level of von Willebrand factor (vWf) (452).