Glycomacropeptide

GMP/Drug Interactions:

  • AntibioticsAntibiotics: In in vitro research, GMP inhibited enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Shigella flexneri (15), Salmonella enteritidis (16; 17) and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 (EHEC O157) (17).
  • Anticoagulants and antiplateletsAnticoagulants and antiplatelets: According to a review, a number of peptides derived from GMP have been shown to inhibit platelet aggregation and thrombosis, although it was not clear if these milk-derived bioactive peptides were released following digestion (26).
  • AntidiabeticsAntidiabetics: In a clinical trial of overweight and obese men and women who took a GMP-enriched whey powder meal replacement supplement, glucose and insulin significantly decreased after six and 12 months (8). In male rats, plasma insulin levels were also significantly reduced in rats on a GMP diet compared to a whey protein isolate diet (51).
  • AntihypertensivesAntihypertensives: In a clinical trial of overweight and obese men and women who took a GMP-enriched whey powder meal replacement supplement, systolic and diastolic blood pressure significantly decreased after six and 12 months (8).
  • Anti-inflammatoriesAnti-inflammatories: In animal study, GMP exhibited intestinal anti-inflammatory activity (24; 25). In vitro, a GMP extract exhibited anti-inflammatory properties in a cell model of acute gout (23), as well as in a urate peritonitis model (23).
  • Antilipemic agentsAntilipemic agents: In a clinical trial of overweight and obese men and women who took a GMP-enriched whey powder meal replacement supplement, total and LDL cholesterol and triacylglycerols decreased after six and 12 months (8). HDL cholesterol significantly increased at 12 months. In male rats, plasma triacylglycerols levels were lowered by a diet containing whey protein isolate and GMP compared to a diet containing casein and beef (51).
  • Antiobesity agentsAntiobesity agents: The effects of GMP added to the diet have not been consistent in clinical trials. Some studies reported that GMP increased satiety over a short-term period but did not affect the amount of food eaten at a subsequent meal (1; 3). Other studies have reported that GMP did not have an effect on satiety (4; 5; 6; 7; 1) or weight loss (8). Although one human study found that GMP stimulated the release of cholecystokinin (thereby promoting satiety) (7), another study reported conflicting results (1). Based on clinical research, the satiety effects may be more pronounced in females than males (7).
  • AntiviralsAntivirals: There is a report that GMP inhibited influenza virus hemagglutination (28). Further information is not available.
  • Dental and periodontal agentsDental and periodontal agents: According to a review, GMP has been patented for use in common personal hygiene products for the prevention of dental cavities, has shown inhibitory activity towards enamel demineralization, and has promoted tooth enamel remineralization (29). In preliminary research, GMP has been shown to inhibit growth of cariogenic bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans (18) and to inhibit adhesion of Streptococcus mutans, Actinomyces viscosus Ny1, Streptococcus sanguis OMZ9, and Streptococcus mutans OMZ176 to polystyrene surfaces (19; 20).
  • Gastrointestinal agents, miscellaneousGastrointestinal agents, miscellaneous: In preliminary research, GMP was shown to inhibit gastric secretion (59; 60; 61). In dogs, GMP inhibited gastric juice secretion (62), provoked a significant inhibition of food motility of the stomach fundus on intravenous injection, and produced cyclic-repetitive vomiting when administered on an empty stomach (53). In in vitro and animal study, GMP exhibited intestinal anti-inflammatory activity (24; 25; 52).
  • LaxativesLaxatives: Infant rhesus macaques fed formula supplemented with GMP from birth to five months of age experienced less diarrhea after being challenged with oral enteropathogenic Escherichia coli O127 compared to infants on a control formula (32).
  • ImmunosuppressantsImmunosuppressants: In animal and in vitro research, GMP has been shown to have immunological effects (35; 36; 37; 52; 38; 39).
  • Neurologic agentsNeurologic agents: Piglets fed sow milk replacer supplemented with increasing amounts of GMP during early development exhibited enhanced learning in a maze test as well as increased expression of two genes (ST8SIA4 and GNE) associated with learning (41).

    • GMP/Herb/Supplement Interactions:

  • AntibacterialsAntibacterials: In in vitro research, GMP inhibited enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Shigella flexneri (15), Salmonella enteritidis (16; 17) and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 (EHEC O157) (17).
  • Anticoagulants and antiplateletsAnticoagulants and antiplatelets: According to a review, a number of peptides derived from GMP have been shown to inhibit platelet aggregation and thrombosis, although it is not clear if these milk-derived bioactive peptides were released following digestion (26).
  • Anti-inflammatoriesAnti-inflammatories: In animal study, GMP exhibited intestinal anti-inflammatory activity (24; 25). In vitro, a GMP extract exhibited anti-inflammatory properties in a cell model of acute gout (23), as well as in a urate peritonitis model (23).
  • AntilipemicsAntilipemics: In a clinical trial of overweight and obese men and women who took a GMP-enriched whey powder meal replacement supplement, total and LDL cholesterol and triacylglycerols decreased after six and 12 months (8). HDL cholesterol significantly increased at 12 months. In male rats, plasma triacylglycerols levels were lowered by a diet containing whey protein isolate and GMP compared to a diet containing casein and beef (51).
  • Antiobesity agentsAntiobesity agents: The effects of GMP added to the diet have not been consistent in clinical trials. Some studies reported that GMP increased satiety over a short-term period but did not affect the amount of food eaten at a subsequent meal (1; 3). Other studies have reported that GMP did not have an effect on satiety (4; 5; 6; 7; 1) or weight loss (8). Although one human study found that GMP stimulated the release of cholecystokinin (thereby promoting satiety) (7), another study reported conflicting results (1). Based on clinical research, the satiety effects may be more pronounced in females than males (7).
  • AntiviralsAntivirals: There is a report that GMP inhibited influenza virus hemagglutination (28). Further information is not available.
  • Dental rinseDental rinse: According to a review, GMP has been patented for use in common personal hygiene products for the prevention of dental cavities, has shown inhibitory activity towards enamel demineralization, and has promoted tooth enamel remineralization (29). In preliminary research, GMP has been shown to inhibit growth of cariogenic bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans (18) and to inhibit adhesion of Streptococcus mutans, Actinomyces viscosus Ny1, Streptococcus sanguis OMZ9, and Streptococcus mutans OMZ176 to polystyrene surfaces (19; 20).
  • Gastrointestinal agentsGastrointestinal agents: In preliminary research, GMP was shown to inhibit gastric secretion (59; 60; 61). In dogs, GMP inhibited gastric juice secretion (62), provoked a significant inhibition of food motility of the stomach fundus on intravenous injection, and produced cyclic-repetitive vomiting when administered on an empty stomach (53). In in vitro and animal study, GMP exhibited intestinal anti-inflammatory activity (24; 25; 52).
  • HypoglycemicsHypoglycemics: In a clinical trial of overweight and obese men and women who took a GMP-enriched whey powder meal replacement supplement, glucose and insulin significantly decreased after six and 12 months (8). In male rats, plasma insulin levels were significantly reduced in rats on a GMP diet compared to a whey protein isolate diet (51).
  • HypotensivesHypotensives: In a clinical trial of overweight and obese men and women who took a GMP-enriched whey powder meal replacement supplement, systolic and diastolic blood pressure significantly decreased after six and 12 months (8).
  • LaxativesLaxatives: Infant rhesus macaques fed formula supplemented with GMP from birth to five months of age experienced less diarrhea after being challenged with oral enteropathogenic Escherichia coli O127 compared to infants on a control formula (32).
  • ImmunosuppressantsImmunosuppressants: In animal and in vitro research, GMP has been shown to have immunological effects (35; 36; 37; 52; 38; 39).
  • Neurologic agentsNeurologic agents: Piglets fed sow milk replacer supplemented with increasing amounts of GMP during early development exhibited enhanced learning in a maze test as well as increased expression of two genes (ST8SIA4 and GNE) associated with learning (41).
  • ProbioticsProbiotics: In human study, GMP may have altered the population of microflora present in the digestive tract (11; 53; 54; 55).
  • ZincZinc: In infant rhesus monkeys, GMP-supplemented formula increased zinc absorption (63).

    • GMP/Food Interactions:

  • Phenylketonuria dietPhenylketonuria diet: A breakfast with GMP suppressed plasma ghrelin levels in individuals with PKU compared to a breakfast made with standard amino acids (14).

    • GMP/Lab Interactions:

  • Amino acidsAmino acids: In clinical study, postprandial concentrations of total plasma amino acids were higher after a GMP breakfast compared to one based on synthetic amino acids, showing slower absorption and less degradation of amino acids from GMP (14).
  • Blood glucoseBlood glucose: In a clinical trial of overweight and obese men and women who took a GMP-enriched whey powder meal replacement supplement, glucose and insulin significantly decreased after six and 12 months (8).
  • Blood pressureBlood pressure: In a clinical trial of overweight and obese men and women who took a GMP-enriched whey powder meal replacement supplement, systolic and diastolic blood pressure significantly decreased after six and 12 months (8).
  • Blood urea nitrogen (BUN)Blood urea nitrogen (BUN): In a clinical trial investigating the effects of substituting GMP food products for a synthetic AA formula in subjects with PKU, blood urea nitrogen was significantly lower, suggesting decreased ureagenesis (13).
  • Body weightBody weight: The effects of GMP added to the diet have not been consistent in clinical trials. Some studies reported that GMP increased satiety over a short-term period but did not affect the amount of food eaten at a subsequent meal (1; 3). Other studies have reported that GMP did not have an effect on satiety (4; 5; 6; 7; 1) or weight loss (8). Although one human study found that GMP stimulated the release of cholecystokinin (thereby promoting satiety) (7), another study reported conflicting results (1). Based on clinical research, the satiety effects may be more pronounced in females than males (7).
  • GhrelinGhrelin: A breakfast with GMP suppressed plasma ghrelin levels in individuals with PKU compared to a breakfast made with standard amino acids (14).
  • InsulinInsulin: In a clinical study of overweight and obese men and women who took a GMP-enriched whey powder meal replacement supplement, glucose and insulin significantly decreased after six and 12 months (8). In male rats, plasma insulin levels were significantly reduced in rats on a GMP diet compared to a whey protein isolate diet (51). In other clinical study, postprandial concentration of insulin was higher after a GMP breakfast compared to one based on synthetic amino acids (14); plasma insulin was also higher with a GMP diet than with AA diet (13).
  • Lipid profileLipid profile: In a clinical study of overweight and obese men and women who took a GMP-enriched whey powder meal replacement supplement, total and LDL cholesterol and triacylglycerols decreased after six and 12 months (8). HDL cholesterol significantly increased at 12 months. In male rats, plasma triacylglycerol levels were lower after a diet containing whey protein isolate and GMP compared to a diet containing casein and beef (51).
  • PlateletsPlatelets: According to a review, a number of peptides derived from GMP have been shown to inhibit platelet aggregation and thrombosis, although it was not clear if these milk-derived bioactive peptides were released following digestion (26).