Molybdenum
Molybdenum/Drug Interactions:
NoteNote: Molybdenum-containing enzymes may affect the metabolism of various drugs; however, those enzymes will not be discussed in this section focusing on interactions due to molybdenum supplementation.2,2'-Bipyridyl2,2'-Bipyridyl: In vitro, the administration of molybdenum reversed the chelator effects of 2,2'-bipyridyl in Legionella pneumophila (72). Antidiabetic agentsAntidiabetic agents: In vitro, peroxomolybdenum compounds were reported to be a potent inhibitor of insulin receptor dephosphorylation (157). In animals, molybdenum has been reported to increase the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase enzymes, and to increase glutathione when administered to diabetic rats for 30 days (55). However, increases in glucose, lactate, insulin levels, and triglycerides were reported in goats that were copper and chromium deficient and had received tetrathiomolybdate (TM) supplementation for the last 10 weeks of the trial (100). AntihypertensivesAntihypertensives: In humans, molybdenum in combination with vitamin C has been reported to decrease systolic and diastolic blood pressure (48). However, in animals, xanthine oxidase has been reported to generate oxyradicals that may lead to an increase in arteriolar tone in spontaneously hypertensive rats (158). Antilipemic agentsAntilipemic agents: In animals, molybdenum has been reported to decrease cholesterol, triglyceride, and phospholipid levels, and reduce lipid peroxidation when administered to diabetic rats for 30 days (55). However, an increase in triglycerides was reported when rabbits were supplemented with 40mg of molybdenum per kilogram of body weight (156). In animals, increases in triglycerides were reported in goats that were copper and chromium deficient and had received TM supplementation for the last 10 weeks of the trial (100). CorticosteroidsCorticosteroids: In vitro, sodium molybdate had a synergistic effect with dithiothreitol to enhance the binding of [3H] dexamethasone in rat skin (182). DoxorubicinDoxorubicin: In animals, tetrathiomolybdate (TM) has been reported to inhibit doxorubicin-induced cardiac damage via anticopper effects (62). Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA): In humans, calcium EDTA was used in one case report of molybdenum toxicity. Resolution of symptoms was reported following several hours of treatment (31). In vitro, the administration of molybdenum reversed the chelator effects of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid in Legionella pneumophila (72). FluorideFluoride: In humans, fluoride, vanadium, molybdenum, and manganese may have a synergistic effect on dental carries resistance (183). However, further information is not currently available. In animals, molybdenum administered with fluoride increased deposition of fluoride in the femur bone of rabbits by 22% vs. fluoride administration alone. Intact parathyroid hormone levels, alkaline phosphatase, and urinary hydroxyproline were higher in the fluoride-plus-molybdenum group. Femur bone mineral density was also reported to be significantly higher than the fluoride group or the fluoride-plus-molybdenum-and-copper group (p< 0.05) or control (p<0.01). A significant increase in bone strength was also reported for the fluoride-plus-molybdenum group when compared with control (184). MonensinMonensin: In animals, molybdenum was not reported to prevent growth depression caused by toxicity in chicks (185). TamoxifenTamoxifen: In humans, significant increases in molybdenum levels were reported after six months in breast cancer patients taking tamoxifen (186). Molybdenum/Herb/Supplement Interactions:
NoteNote: Molybdenum-containing enzymes may affect the metabolism of various herbs and supplements; however, those enzymes will not be discussed in this section focusing on interactions due to molybdenum supplementation.AntilipemicsAntilipemics: In animals, molybdenum has been reported to decrease cholesterol, triglyceride, and phospholipid levels, and to reduce lipid peroxidation when administered to diabetic rats for 30 days (55). However, an increase in triglycerides was reported when rabbits were supplemented with 40mg of molybdenum per kilogram of body weight (156). In animals, increases in triglycerides were reported in goats that were copper and chromium deficient and had received TM supplementation for the last 10 weeks of the trial (100). AntioxidantsAntioxidants: In animals, molybdenum has been reported to increase the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase enzymes, and it increased glutathione when administered to diabetic rats for 30 days (55). ArginineArginine: In animals, arginine was reported to decrease concentrations of molybdenum in the femur of rats (187). Ascorbic acidAscorbic acid: In animals, molybdenum was reported to affect the metabolism of ascorbic acid in rats (188). BoronBoron: In animals, boron was reported to not affect the cardiac concentrations of molybdenum in streptozotocin-injected, vitamin D3-deficient rats (189). CalciumCalcium: In vitro and in animals, calcium was reported to hinder the emergence of MoS42- (190). CitrateCitrate: In vitro, the administration of molybdenum reversed the chelator effects of citrate in Legionella pneumophila (72). FlavonoidsFlavonoids: According to a review, flavonoids may interact with molybdenum hydroxylases (192). FluorideFluoride: In humans, fluoride, vanadium, molybdenum, and manganese may have a synergistic effect on dental carries resistance (183). However, further information is not currently available. In animals, molybdenum administered with fluoride increased deposition of fluoride in the femur bone of rabbits by 22% vs. fluoride administration alone. Intact parathyroid hormone levels, alkaline phosphatase, and urinary hydroxyproline were higher in the fluoride-plus-molybdenum group. Femur bone mineral density was also reported to be significantly higher than the fluoride group or the fluoride-plus-molybdenum-and-copper group (p< 0.05) or control (p<0.01). A significant increase in bone strength was also reported for the fluoride-plus-molybdenum group when compared with control (184). GermaniumGermanium: In animals, germanium has been reported to decrease molybdenum in the femur of rats (193). GlutathioneGlutathione: In diabetic rats, molybdenum has been reported to increase glutathione when administered for 30 days (55). HypoglycemicsHypoglycemics: In vitro, peroxomolybdenum compounds were reported to be a potent inhibitor of insulin receptor dephosphorylation (157). In animals, molybdenum has been reported to increase the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase enzymes, and to increase glutathione when administered to diabetic rats for 30 days (55). However, increases in glucose, lactate, insulin levels, and triglycerides were reported in goats that were copper and chromium deficient and had received TM supplementation for the last 10 weeks of the trial (100). HypotensivesHypotensives: Antihypertensive agents: In humans, molybdenum in combination with vitamin C has been reported to decrease systolic and diastolic blood pressure (48). However, in animals, xanthine oxidase has been reported to generate oxyradicals, which may lead to an increase in arteriolar tone in spontaneously hypertensive rats (158). IronIron: In animals, iron has also been reported to be a copper antagonist (144; 194; 195; 196; 197). Magnesium supplementation in iron-deficient rats increased levels of molybdenum in the brain (198). Iron deficiency in Japanese quails was also reported to elevate levels of molybdenum in the liver (199). MagnesiumMagnesium: In animals, magnesium supplementation in iron-deficient rats increased levels of molybdenum in the brain (198). ManganeseManganese: In humans, fluoride, vanadium, molybdenum, and manganese may have a synergistic effect on dental carries resistance (183). TungstenTungsten: In animals, administration of tungsten has been reported to have an antagonistic effect against molybdenum (158; 200; 201). VanadiumVanadium: In humans, fluoride, vanadium, molybdenum, and manganese may have a synergistic effect on dental carries resistance (183). Molybdenum/Food Interactions:
Crude proteinCrude protein: In animals, high doses of molybdenum have been reported to reduce crude protein digestion nonsignificantly in rabbits (156). However, diets high in molybdenum and low in sulfur were associated with increases in the digestion of crude protein in the stomach of steers, but diets high in molybdenum and high in sulfur or low in molybdenum reported decreases (202). MolassesMolasses: In animals, heifers supplemented with molasses-based products were reported to have nonsignificantly higher molybdenum levels in the liver (203). Molybdenum/Lab Interactions:
Alanine aminotransferaseAlanine aminotransferase: In humans, patients with primary biliary cirrhosis who were treated with TM experienced differences in both alanine amino transferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels (p<0.01) compared to the placebo group (20). Additional human trials have reported increases in ALT and AST in patients with Wilson's disease (24; 10; 25; 22; 30). Alkaline phosphataseAlkaline phosphatase: Increases in alkaline phosphatase were reported in rabbits that received fluoride with molybdenum (184). Aspartate aminotransferaseAspartate aminotransferase: In humans, patients with primary biliary cirrhosis who were treated with TM experienced differences in both alanine amino transferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels (p<0.01) compared to the placebo group (20). Additional human trials have reported increases in ALT and AST in patients with Wilson's disease (24; 10; 25; 22; 30). Blood pressureBlood pressure: In humans, molybdenum and vitamin C were reported to decrease systolic and diastolic blood pressure (48). In animals, xanthine oxidase has been reported to generate oxyradicals, which may lead to an increase in arteriolar tone in spontaneously hypertensive rats (158). Creatine kinaseCreatine kinase: In rabbits, high doses of molybdenum resulted in an increase in creatine kinase (156). GlucoseGlucose: Increases in glucose were reported in goats that were copper and chromium deficient and had received TM supplementation for the last 10 weeks of the trial; however, insulin levels were reported to increase (100). GlutathioneGlutathione: In diabetic rats, molybdenum has been reported to increase glutathione when administered for 30 days (55). HomocysteineHomocysteine: In animals and humans, alterations to the molybdenum-containing enzyme sulfite oxidase resulted in changes to homocysteine levels (204; 200). In a newborn with sulfate oxidase deficiency, levels of plasma total homocysteine were not detectable (204). Hydroxylase activityHydroxylase activity: In animals, administration of molybdenum has been reported to increase the activity of xanthine oxidase, superoxide dismutase, and sulfite oxidase in rats (205; 206). InsulinInsulin: Insulin levels were reported to increase in goats that were copper and chromium deficient and had received TM supplementation for the last 10 weeks of the trial (100). Intact parathyroid hormoneIntact parathyroid hormone: Increases in intact parathyroid hormone levels were reported in rabbits that received fluoride with molybdenum (184). LactateLactate: Increases in lactate were reported in goats that were copper and chromium deficient and had received TM supplementation for the last 10 weeks of the trial (100). Lipid panelLipid panel: In animals, molybdenum has been reported to decrease cholesterol, triglyceride, and phospholipid levels, and to reduce lipid peroxidation when administered to diabetic rats for 30 days (55). However, an increase in triglycerides was reported when rabbits were supplemented with 40mg of molybdenum per kilogram of body weight (156) and in goats that were copper and chromium deficient and had received TM supplementation for the last 10 weeks of the trial (100). MagnesiumMagnesium: In animals, molybdenosis resulted in a decrease of magnesium in the serum and organs (100). Nitric oxideNitric oxide: In vitro, xanthine oxidase has been reported to reduce nitrite to nitric oxide in hypoxic conditions (207). PhosphorusPhosphorus: In animals, molybdenosis resulted in a decrease of phosphorus in the serum and organs (100). Retinoic acidRetinoic acid: In animals, aldehyde oxidase has been reported to convert retinaldehyde to retinoic acid (208). Serum ureaSerum urea: In animals, increases in serum urea concentrations were reported in goats that were copper and chromium deficient and had received TM supplementation for the last 10 weeks of the trial, without evidence of dehydration or renal insufficiency (100). Thyroxine (T4)Thyroxine (T4): In animals, a decrease in thyroxine was reported in goats that were copper and chromium deficient and had received TM supplementation for the last 10 weeks of the trial (100). Uric acidUric acid: According to a review, workers exposed to molybdenum may produce excess levels of uric acid (28). Increases in xanthine oxidase activity may result in increased production of uric acid (209; 210; 211). In animals, molybdenum may have an effect on uric acid, but further details are lacking (212). Urinary hydroxyprolineUrinary hydroxyproline: In animals, increases in urinary hydroxyproline were reported in rabbits that received fluoride with molybdenum (184).