Tofu

Related Terms

Abalon?, beta-conglycinin, bioactive peptides, bowman-birk inhibitor (BBI), calcium, conglycinin, coumestrol, daidzein, daizuga-cha (Japanese), dark soy sauce, dietary soy protein, edamame, equol, Fabaceae, Fibrim?, fish oil, flavonoids, folate, fortified soymilk, frijol de soya, functional proteins, genistein, genistin, Glycine max, Glycine max AT, glycinin, greater bean, guar gum, haba soya, hydrolyzed soy protein, Hyprovit?, iron, isoflavone, isoflavones, isoflavonoid, Isomil?, kuromame-cha (Japanese), kuromame-cha Gold (Japanese), kuromame-soymilk drink (Japanese), lecithin, legume, lignans, magnesium, margarine, miso, Mull-Soy?, natto, Nursoy?, okara, phosphatidylserine, phosphorus, phytate, phytoestrogen, plant estrogen, potassium, Previna?, ProSobee?, PtdSer, Purina 660, shoyu, shoyu polysaccharides, soja, sojabohne, soya, soya-based food, soya protein, soya saponins, soya sauce, soybean, soybean-barley paste, soybean oil, soy concentrates, Soy Enfamil?, soy fiber, soy flour, soy food, soy isoflavones, soy isolates, soy lecithin, soymilk, soy nuts, soy oil, soy phosphatidylcholine complex (IdB 1016), soy phosphatidylinositol (PI), soy product, soy protein, soy protein isolate, soy sauce, S-PtdSer, Supro?, Supro 660?, Supro 675?, Ta-tou, tempeh, texturized vegetable protein, tofu, yuba.
Note: Ipriflavone, a synthetic isoflavone, has been studied as a possible way to treat or prevent bone loss in post-menopausal women. This monograph concentrates on natural soy. Ipriflavone is discussed separately. Soy isoflavones, genistein and daidzein, have been studied as treatments for various conditions. This monograph concentrates on soy protein or foods containing soy protein. Isoflavones are discussed separately. Soy lecithin is derived from the processing of soybeans. It is a mixture of fatty substances separated from soybean oil and used as a food additive. Its chemical name is phosphatidylcholine and contains the constituents of choline, phosphoric acid, glycerin, and fatty acids. Soy lecithin is discussed in a separate monograph. Soybean oil and soy-derived sterols are not specifically discussed.

Background

Soy is a subtropical plant, native to southeastern Asia. This member of the pea family grows from one to five-feet tall and forms clusters of three to five pods, each containing two to four beans per pod. Soy has been a dietary staple in Asian countries for at least 5,000 years, and during the Chou dynasty in China (1134-246 B.C.), fermentation techniques were discovered that allowed soy to be prepared in more easily digestible forms such as tempeh, miso, and tamari soy sauce. Tofu was invented in 2nd-Century China.
Soy was introduced to Europe in the 1700s and to the United States in the 1800s. Large-scale soybean cultivation began in the United States during World War II. Currently, Midwestern U.S. states produce approximately half of the world's supply of soybeans.
Soy contains protein, isoflavones, and fiber, all thought to provide health benefits. Soy is an excellent source of dietary protein, including all essential amino acids. Soy is also a source of lecithin or phospholipid. Soy isoflavones and lecithin have been studied scientifically for numerous health conditions. Isoflavones such as genistein are believed to have estrogen-like effects in the body, and as a result are sometimes called "phytoestrogens."
Common sources of soy isoflavones include roasted soybean, green soybean, soy flour, tempeh, tofu, tofu yogurt, soy hot dogs, miso, soy butter, soy nut butter, soy ice cream, soy milk, soy yogurt, tofu pups?, soy cheese, bean curd, seitan, and soy noodles. Soybean flour is found in Spanish sausage products (chorizo, salchichon, mortadella, and boiled ham), doughnuts, and soup stock cubes. Although processed soy foods (e.g., veggie burgers, tofu pups?, meatless dinner entrees, chicken-free nuggets, soy "ice creams" and energy bars) are usually high in protein, they typically contain lower levels of isoflavones.
Soy protein has also been investigated for benefit in terms of heart disease risk factors, reducing menopausal symptoms, weight loss, arthritis, brain function, and exercise performance. Dietary soy may decrease the risk of breast cancer in women and prostate cancer in men, as well as other types of cancers. In general, the supportive evidence for use of phytoestrogens as treatments for menopause, heart disease, bone disease, weight loss, and cancer is limited. The use of soy formula has been investigated in the treatment of diarrhea in infants and is an effective and safe alternative to cow's milk formula in most infants.

Evidence Table

These uses have been tested in humans or animals. Safety and effectiveness have not always been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should be evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider. GRADE *
These uses have been tested in humans or animals. Safety and effectiveness have not always been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should be evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider. GRADE *


Soy products, such as tofu, are high in protein and are an acceptable source of dietary protein.

 A


Soy products, such as tofu, are high in protein and are an acceptable source of dietary protein.

 A


Human research reports that adding soy protein to the diet can moderately decrease total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein ("bad" cholesterol). The most benefit has been seen when all animal protein is substituted with soy, especially in soy products that contain isoflavones. The reductions in cholesterol may last as long as the diet is continued.

A


Human research reports that adding soy protein to the diet can moderately decrease total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein ("bad" cholesterol). The most benefit has been seen when all animal protein is substituted with soy, especially in soy products that contain isoflavones. The reductions in cholesterol may last as long as the diet is continued.

A


Research reports that infants with diarrhea who are fed soy formula have less diarrhea than those fed milk formula. This only applies to children that are unable to eat solid food. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be made. Parents are advised to speak with qualified healthcare providers if their infants experience prolonged diarrhea, become dehydrated, develop signs of infections (such as fever), or have blood in the stool. A healthcare provider should be consulted for current breastfeeding recommendations and to suggest long-term formulas that provide enough nutrition.

 B


Research reports that infants with diarrhea who are fed soy formula have less diarrhea than those fed milk formula. This only applies to children that are unable to eat solid food. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be made. Parents are advised to speak with qualified healthcare providers if their infants experience prolonged diarrhea, become dehydrated, develop signs of infections (such as fever), or have blood in the stool. A healthcare provider should be consulted for current breastfeeding recommendations and to suggest long-term formulas that provide enough nutrition.

 B


Research in humans generally shows that soy lowers blood pressure. Further research is needed to determine the ideal soy preparation for lowering blood pressure.

B


Research in humans generally shows that soy lowers blood pressure. Further research is needed to determine the ideal soy preparation for lowering blood pressure.

B


Research shows that soy reduces hot flash occurrence in menopausal women. Further research is needed before a strong conclusion can be made.

B


Research shows that soy reduces hot flash occurrence in menopausal women. Further research is needed before a strong conclusion can be made.

B


Soy formulas are commonly used by infants with sensitivities to milk-based formulas. There is currently little evidence to support the use of soy formulas for preventing food allergies. Further research is needed in this field.

 C


Soy formulas are commonly used by infants with sensitivities to milk-based formulas. There is currently little evidence to support the use of soy formulas for preventing food allergies. Further research is needed in this field.

 C


There is some evidence in support of soy increasing antioxidant status in humans. In general, diets high in plant foods may offer antioxidant benefits. Further research is required in this field before conclusions can be made.

 C


There is some evidence in support of soy increasing antioxidant status in humans. In general, diets high in plant foods may offer antioxidant benefits. Further research is required in this field before conclusions can be made.

 C


The effect of soy on ulcers in the bowel/intestinal tract has been examined in limited study. Overall, the effects of soy products appear beneficial. Further study is required before conclusions can be made.

 C


The effect of soy on ulcers in the bowel/intestinal tract has been examined in limited study. Overall, the effects of soy products appear beneficial. Further study is required before conclusions can be made.

 C


Limited human research shows that soy may decrease the risk of cancer, including breast, prostate, and colon cancer. However, confounding factors including dietary and lifestyle habits, culture, and genetics must be considered. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be made.

C


Limited human research shows that soy may decrease the risk of cancer, including breast, prostate, and colon cancer. However, confounding factors including dietary and lifestyle habits, culture, and genetics must be considered. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be made.

C


It is unclear if soy supplementation in postmenopausal women can improve cognitive function. Results from studies are mixed. Further research is necessary.

C


It is unclear if soy supplementation in postmenopausal women can improve cognitive function. Results from studies are mixed. Further research is necessary.

C


From limited human research, it is unclear if soy helps with Crohn's disease. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be made.

 C


From limited human research, it is unclear if soy helps with Crohn's disease. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be made.

 C


Limited research shows that soy may decrease cyclical breast pain, which is pain linked to the menstrual cycle. Further research is needed to draw conclusions.

 C


Limited research shows that soy may decrease cyclical breast pain, which is pain linked to the menstrual cycle. Further research is needed to draw conclusions.

 C


Human research demonstrates mixed results of soy products for blood sugar levels in people with type 2 diabetes. Overall, better quality research is needed in this area.

C


Human research demonstrates mixed results of soy products for blood sugar levels in people with type 2 diabetes. Overall, better quality research is needed in this area.

C


Soy protein has been investigated as a source of protein with potential for benefit in exercise performance. In general, research findings suggest soy protein is better than a lack of protein but is unlikely to be superior to other sources of protein. Further research is required in this field.

 C


Soy protein has been investigated as a source of protein with potential for benefit in exercise performance. In general, research findings suggest soy protein is better than a lack of protein but is unlikely to be superior to other sources of protein. Further research is required in this field.

 C


Limited evidence shows that soy lacks benefit for physical function and depression symptoms in fibromyalgia. Further research in this area is needed before any firm conclusions can be made.

C


Limited evidence shows that soy lacks benefit for physical function and depression symptoms in fibromyalgia. Further research in this area is needed before any firm conclusions can be made.

C


There is insufficient evidence regarding the use of soy as a therapy for gallstones. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be made.

 C


There is insufficient evidence regarding the use of soy as a therapy for gallstones. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be made.

 C


Research suggests cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary soy, which in theory, may reduce the risk of heart problems. However, in limited research soy lacked an effect on blood vessel function and increased the levels a heart disease risk marker. Further investigation is needed before a conclusion can be made.

 C


Research suggests cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary soy, which in theory, may reduce the risk of heart problems. However, in limited research soy lacked an effect on blood vessel function and increased the levels a heart disease risk marker. Further investigation is needed before a conclusion can be made.

 C


There is currently a lack of scientific evidence regarding the use of soy formula for fussiness and gas in infants with cow's milk allergy. Further research is warranted.

 C


There is currently a lack of scientific evidence regarding the use of soy formula for fussiness and gas in infants with cow's milk allergy. Further research is warranted.

 C


Sufficient evidence is lacking regarding the use of soy protein for inflammation associated with hemodialysis (a treatment given when kidneys fail, to remove waste from the blood). Further research is needed.

C


Sufficient evidence is lacking regarding the use of soy protein for inflammation associated with hemodialysis (a treatment given when kidneys fail, to remove waste from the blood). Further research is needed.

C


There is currently a lack of sufficient evidence regarding the use of soy-based formula in the treatment of iron deficiency anemia in children. Further research is needed.

 C


There is currently a lack of sufficient evidence regarding the use of soy-based formula in the treatment of iron deficiency anemia in children. Further research is needed.

 C


Sufficient evidence is lacking regarding the use of soy in the treatment of kidney diseases, such as nephrotic syndrome. Further research is necessary. People with kidney disease should speak with their healthcare providers about the recommended amounts of dietary protein because soy is a high-protein food.

C


Sufficient evidence is lacking regarding the use of soy in the treatment of kidney diseases, such as nephrotic syndrome. Further research is necessary. People with kidney disease should speak with their healthcare providers about the recommended amounts of dietary protein because soy is a high-protein food.

C


Overall, evidence suggests that soy products containing isoflavones may help reduce various menopausal symptoms. More study is needed to confirm this use.

 C


Overall, evidence suggests that soy products containing isoflavones may help reduce various menopausal symptoms. More study is needed to confirm this use.

 C


An herbal combination containing soy may help prevent menstrual migraine attacks. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be made.

 C


An herbal combination containing soy may help prevent menstrual migraine attacks. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be made.

 C


Treatment with soy protein and soy nuts was evaluated in patients with metabolic syndrome. Benefits were found in terms of decreased cholesterol levels from consuming soy. Further research is required in this field to draw conclusions.

 C


Treatment with soy protein and soy nuts was evaluated in patients with metabolic syndrome. Benefits were found in terms of decreased cholesterol levels from consuming soy. Further research is required in this field to draw conclusions.

 C


In limited research, the addition of soy polysaccharide to non-regular diets improved stool consistency. It is unclear if soy polysaccharide would be superior to other fiber sources in this regard. Further research is warranted.

C


In limited research, the addition of soy polysaccharide to non-regular diets improved stool consistency. It is unclear if soy polysaccharide would be superior to other fiber sources in this regard. Further research is warranted.

C


Osteoarthritis is a form of arthritis caused by the breakdown of cartilage and resulting in symptoms of pain and decreased range of motion of joints. Early research suggests that intake of soy protein may be associated with reduced symptoms of osteoarthritis. Further research is needed before conclusions can be made.

 C


Osteoarthritis is a form of arthritis caused by the breakdown of cartilage and resulting in symptoms of pain and decreased range of motion of joints. Early research suggests that intake of soy protein may be associated with reduced symptoms of osteoarthritis. Further research is needed before conclusions can be made.

 C


Early evidence suggests that increased dietary intake of soy is associated with a decreased risk of physical disability in healthy older women. Further high quality research is needed for conclusions to be made.

C


Early evidence suggests that increased dietary intake of soy is associated with a decreased risk of physical disability in healthy older women. Further high quality research is needed for conclusions to be made.

C


Sufficient evidence is lacking regarding the use of soy in managing symptoms of PMS. Further high-quality clinical research is needed in this area before any firm conclusions can be made.

 C


Sufficient evidence is lacking regarding the use of soy in managing symptoms of PMS. Further high-quality clinical research is needed in this area before any firm conclusions can be made.

 C


There is currently insufficient evidence regarding the use of soy as a treatment for rheumatoid arthritis. High-quality clinical research is needed in this area.

 C


There is currently insufficient evidence regarding the use of soy as a treatment for rheumatoid arthritis. High-quality clinical research is needed in this area.

 C


Research shows that combination products containing soy extract have demonstrated improvements in wrinkles and skin quality. More research is needed with soy products alone before a conclusion can be made.

 C


Research shows that combination products containing soy extract have demonstrated improvements in wrinkles and skin quality. More research is needed with soy products alone before a conclusion can be made.

 C


A soy moisturizing cream may help improve signs of sun damage, including discoloration, blotchiness, dullness, fine lines, and overall texture. Because the cream contained other ingredients besides soy, more research with soy alone is needed.

 C


A soy moisturizing cream may help improve signs of sun damage, including discoloration, blotchiness, dullness, fine lines, and overall texture. Because the cream contained other ingredients besides soy, more research with soy alone is needed.

 C


Whey protein has traditionally been used as a protein source to increase body strength. Limited research investigated whether soy protein could be used to increase walking performance in patients with incomplete spinal cord injury. Further research is needed to make a conclusion.

 C


Whey protein has traditionally been used as a protein source to increase body strength. Limited research investigated whether soy protein could be used to increase walking performance in patients with incomplete spinal cord injury. Further research is needed to make a conclusion.

 C


Early research suggests that soy supplements lack an effect on thyroid function. More research is needed.

 C


Early research suggests that soy supplements lack an effect on thyroid function. More research is needed.

 C


According to early research, soy may improve tolerance of antimicrobial drugs that are used to treat tuberculosis. Further research is needed to make conclusions.

 C


According to early research, soy may improve tolerance of antimicrobial drugs that are used to treat tuberculosis. Further research is needed to make conclusions.

 C


In limited study, weaning infants with cow's milk allergy to soy based formula resulted in reduced weight for age as compared with formulas containing hydrolyzed (broken down) proteins. Further research is required in this field.

 C


In limited study, weaning infants with cow's milk allergy to soy based formula resulted in reduced weight for age as compared with formulas containing hydrolyzed (broken down) proteins. Further research is required in this field.

 C


Some research suggests that soy might be as effective as skim milk and more effective than a low-calorie diet alone in reducing weight. Other research has reported conflicting results. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be made.

 C


Some research suggests that soy might be as effective as skim milk and more effective than a low-calorie diet alone in reducing weight. Other research has reported conflicting results. Further research is needed before a conclusion can be made.

 C


Human research shows that soy lacks an effect on bone mineral density in post-menopausal women and healthy adults. However, more research is needed.

 F


Human research shows that soy lacks an effect on bone mineral density in post-menopausal women and healthy adults. However, more research is needed.

 F
* Key to grades

A: Strong scientific evidence for this use
B: Good scientific evidence for this use
C: Unclear scientific evidence for this use
D: Fair scientific evidence for this use (it may not work)
F: Strong scientific evidence against this use (it likley does not work)
* Key to grades

A: Strong scientific evidence for this use
B: Good scientific evidence for this use
C: Unclear scientific evidence for this use
D: Fair scientific evidence for this use (it may not work)
F: Strong scientific evidence against this use (it likley does not work)

Tradition / Theory

The below uses are based on tradition, scientific theories, or limited research. They often have not been thoroughly tested in humans, and safety and effectiveness have not always been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should be evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider. There may be other proposed uses that are not listed below.

Dosing

Adults (over 18 years old)
Soy protein dosing is controversial and consistent clinical effects have been lacking. In the United States, 25 milligrams daily of soy has been approved for decreasing cholesterol. Incidence of breast and prostate cancer is low in Asia, therefore dietary soy intake has been investigated.
As an antioxidant, 25 grams of soy protein in a single shake has been taken by mouth for up to eight weeks and 50 grams of soy (kinako) has been used daily for 90 days.
For cancer (prevention and treatment), 20-58 grams of soy protein for six weeks to six months has been taken by mouth; also 8 ounces of soymilk has also been taken three times daily for 12 months.
For heart health, 25-50 grams of soy protein (e.g. Abalon?), and soy-containing foods (such as tofu and yogurt), and soy foods with 40-60mg isoflavones have been taken by mouth daily for 4-52 weeks.
For gallstone prevention, soy protein has been taken by mouth for two weeks.
For cognitive function, 25.6 grams or an unknown dose of soy protein, soy supplement, or soymilk (containing 60-160mg isoflavones) have been taken by mouth daily for 3-12 months.
For Crohn's disease, soya-derived protein has been added to standard enteral treatment for four weeks.
For cyclical breast pain, 17 grams of soy protein as a beverage has been taken by mouth twice daily for three months.
For diabetes, 11.3-111 grams of soy protein or 0.5-0.8 grams per kilogram soy protein (e.g. Abalon?) has been taken by mouth daily for periods of four weeks to four years. Also, fermented soybean touchi tea has been taken by mouth for three months, a single dose of 7-10 grams of soy fiber or a meal with 10 grams soy polysaccharide has been used as a single dose; 52 grams of soy hull fiber has been taken by mouth daily for four weeks; and a soy protein diet has been followed for eight weeks.
For enhancement of exercise performance, 0.4-1.5 grams per kilogram of soy protein divided has been used once to three times daily for 6-8 weeks; and a fat-free soy protein drink has been taken by mouth twice daily post-exercise, five days weekly for 12 weeks.
For fibromyalgia, a shake with 20 grams of soy protein and 160 milligrams of soy isoflavone has been taken by mouth daily for six weeks.
For high blood pressure, 15-66 grams of soy protein has been taken by mouth daily for 4-52 weeks; also 500 milliliters of soymilk has been taken twice daily for three months.
For inflammation due to hemodialysis, soy protein has been taken by mouth for eight weeks.
For iron deficiency anemia, two capsules of shoyu polysaccharides has been taken by mouth twice daily for four weeks.
For kidney disease, the following diets have been followed for seven weeks to six months: a soy-based vegetable low-protein diet; a 35% soy protein and 30% vegetable protein diet; a diet with soy protein as half of the daily protein intake.
For lowering cholesterol, 11.3-140 grams of soy protein has been taken by mouth daily for 3-52 weeks.
For the menopausal symptom hot flush, 33.3-134.4 milligrams of soy supplement, extract, or protein has been taken by mouth daily for 12-96 weeks. Dietary soy powder (Previna?) containing 12 milligrams of soy protein and 45 milligrams of isoflavones has been taken by mouth twice daily for 16 weeks. Also, 40-134 milligrams of soy isoflavones has been taken by mouth daily for 6-26 weeks.
For non-hot flush menopausal symptoms, soy protein, soy supplement, or soymilk (containing 60-160 milligrams of isoflavones has been taken daily for 3-12 months; also a dose of 25 grams of soy protein has been used for up to 12 months.
For metabolic syndrome, soy protein has been taken by mouth for eight weeks in place of animal protein.
For motility disorders, 15 grams of soy polysaccharide fiber have been taken by mouth daily for up to 18 days.
For osteoarthritis, 40 grams of soy protein has been taken by mouth daily for three months.
For osteoporosis, 500 milliliters of soymilk has been taken daily for 1-2 years; also 80.4 milligrams to 40 grams of soy protein has been taken daily for three months to one year.
For premenstrual syndrome (PMS), 30.5 grams of soy protein isolate has been taken daily for seven months.
For rheumatoid arthritis, soy peptide has been taken by mouth for four weeks.
For skin damage, a skin cream containing soy ingredients has been applied to the skin for 12 weeks.
For spinal cord injury, 48 grams of a vanilla-flavored soy drink has been taken by mouth.
For weight loss, 15 grams of soy protein per 1,000 kilocalories has been taken by mouth daily for up to 12 weeks (as five meal replacements, three soy shakes, or soy foods); four pieces of beta-conglycin candy (0.625 grams of beta-conglycin per candy) has been taken by mouth twice daily for reduction of visceral fat; a soya-based liquid formula for two meals daily with was taken by mouth for four weeks; a soy-based low-calorie diet has been followed for eight weeks; five foods prepared with isolated soy protein have been consumed to maintain a protein intake between 86-96 grams daily for 30 days; 25 milligrams of soy isolate (containing 59% protein) or soy concentrate (containing 59.5% protein) has been taken by mouth twice daily for 12 weeks.

Safety

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration does not strictly regulate herbs and supplements. There is no guarantee of strength, purity or safety of products, and effects may vary. You should always read product labels. If you have a medical condition, or are taking other drugs, herbs, or supplements, you should speak with a qualified healthcare provider before starting a new therapy. Consult a healthcare provider immediately if you experience side effects.

Interactions

Interactions with Drugs
Soy may increase the risk of bleeding when taken with drugs that increase the risk of bleeding. Some examples include aspirin, anticoagulants ("blood thinners") such as warfarin (Coumadin?) or heparin, anti-platelet drugs such as clopidogrel (Plavix?), and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen (Motrin?, Advil?) or naproxen (Naprosyn?, Aleve?).
Soy may lower blood sugar levels. Caution is advised when using medications that may also lower blood sugar. People taking drugs for diabetes by mouth or insulin should be monitored closely by a qualified healthcare professional, including a pharmacist. Medication adjustments may be necessary.
Soy may cause high blood pressure. Caution is advised in people taking drugs that affect blood pressure.
Soy may interfere with the way the body processes certain drugs using the liver's "cytochrome P450" enzyme system. As a result, the levels of these drugs may be increased in the blood, and may cause altered effects or potentially serious adverse reactions. People using any medications should check the package insert, and speak with a qualified healthcare professional, including a pharmacist, about possible interactions.
Because soy contains estrogen like chemicals, the effects of other agents believed to have estrogen-like properties may be altered.
Soy may also potentially interact with agents for the skin, agents taken for bone health, agents taken for cancer, diarrhea, high cholesterol, heart disorders, or weight loss, agents that affect the nervous or immune system, Alzheimer's agents, antibiotics, aromatase inhibitors, calcitriol, diuretics (water pills), hormonal agents, iron salts, indomethacin, insect repellants, progestins, selective estrogen receptor modifiers (SERMs), stomach or intestine agents, thyroid hormones, tibolone.

Attribution

This information is based on a systematic review of scientific literature edited and peer-reviewed by contributors to the Natural Standard Research Collaboration (www.naturalstandard.com).

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