Linoleic acid
Safflower/Drug Interactions:
Antacids/cimetidineAntacids/cimetidine: In a case series, children with cystic fibrosis had greater increases in plasma linoleic acid levels following ingestion of safflower oil when they took antacids and cimetidine with their pancreatic capsules, compared to when they only took the pancreatic capsules (81). Anti-coagulant/anti-platelet drugsAnti-coagulant/anti-platelet drugs: Based on clinical trials and laboratory study, safflower may have anti-platelet aggregation activity (2; 30; 27; 31; 32). However, other clinical trials have found that dietary alpha-linolenic acid did not affect the thrombosis (85; 86). AspirinAspirin: Based on a clinical trial, safflower seed oil may interact additively with aspirin's anti-coagulant properties (30). Calcium channel blockers (verapamil)Calcium channel blockers (verapamil): Based on a randomized control trial, safflower may prohibit platelets aggregation and anticoagulation, and may promote microcirculation (2). HeparinHeparin: According to a clinical trial, mini doses of heparin added to large doses of Liposyn? 10% (an emulsion of safflower oil) in total parenteral nutrition reversed hypercoagulation caused by the safflower oil (27). Hypercholesterolemic drugsHypercholesterolemic drugs: According to clinical trials and laboratory study, ingestion of safflower oil may decrease serum total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, apolipoprotein B, and malondialdehyde-LDL (30; 87; 88; 89; 90; 91; 92). However, some clinical trials found that safflower may increase some serum lipids, including cell cholesterol in the plasma, and increase tri-glyceride-rich lipoproteins (93; 94; 57; 95). Several other clinical trials found that safflower oil did not significantly change any measured lipid/lipoprotein values (96; 97; 98; 99; 100; 101; 78; 102; 92). Hypoglycemic agentsHypoglycemic agents: Based on a clinical trial, safflower oil may adversely affect glycemic control in type 2 diabetes patients (25), which is supported by an animal study that found high-fat feeding safflower oil diet produced insulin resistance (26). However, another clinical study in young, sedentary individuals found that ingestion of safflower oil had no change in insulin sensitivity index (103). Hypotensive agentsHypotensive agents: Based on a clinical trial, safflower oil may cause a modest fall in blood pressure and interact additively with hypotensive agents (28). However, several other clinical studies have shown no effect on blood pressure (48; 61; 86). ImmunostimulantsImmunostimulants: According to clinical trials and animal study, safflower oil may have immunostimulation properties (33; 34; 35; 36; 37). However, other studies have found no immunostimulation effects (104; 105; 106; 107). LithiumLithium: Based on a case series, safflower oil may remit the symptoms of low-dose lithium neurotoxicity caused by inhibited the synthesis of prostaglandin (PG) EI (108). PentobarbitalPentobarbital: Based on an animal study, safflower oil may increase pentobarbital-associated mortalities (38). Tyrosinase inhibitorsTyrosinase inhibitors: Based on in vitro study, kinobeon A, a rose-colored pigment found in safflower tissue, demonstrated potent tyrosinase activity (82). Safflower/Herb/Supplement Interactions:
AntacidsAntacids: In a case series, children with cystic fibrosis had greater increases in plasma linoleic acid levels following ingestion of safflower oil when they took antacids and cimetidine with their pancreatic capsules, compared to when they only took the pancreatic capsules (81). Anti-coagulant/anti-platelet agentsAnti-coagulant/anti-platelet agents: Based on clinical trials and laboratory study, safflower may have anti-platelet aggregation activity (2; 30; 27; 31; 32). However, other clinical trials have found that dietary alpha-linolenic acid did not affect the thrombosis (85; 86). Fish oilFish oil: Based on a clinical trial of patients on hormone replacement therapy, safflower oil may interact additively with fish oil to reduce C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 (109). However, in two clinical studies, safflower oil ingestion did not attenuate the favorable modification of certain risk factors for cardiovascular disease (membrane fatty acid composition, blood lipids, and thrombotic profile) by n-3 PUFA (fish oil) (110). CalciumCalcium: According to a clinical trial, safflower oil may significantly decrease leukocyte-ionized calcium (55). These results are supported by a similar, earlier clinical trial by the same author (56). Hypercholesterolemic agentsHypercholesterolemic agents: According to clinical trials and laboratory study, ingestion of safflower oil may decrease serum total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, apolipoprotein B, and malondialdehyde-LDL (30; 87; 88; 89; 90; 91; 92). However, some clinical trials found that safflower may increase some serum lipids, including cell cholesterol in the plasma, and increase tri-glyceride-rich lipoproteins (93; 94; 57; 95). Several other clinical trials found that safflower oil did not significantly change any measured lipid/lipoprotein values (96; 97; 98; 99; 100; 101; 78; 102; 92). Hypoglycemic agentsHypoglycemic agents: Based on a clinical trial, safflower oil may adversely affect glycemic control in type 2 diabetes patients (25), which is supported by an animal study that found high-fat feeding safflower oil diet produced insulin resistance (26). However, another clinical study in young, sedentary individuals found that ingestion of safflower oil had no change in insulin sensitivity index (103). Hypotensive agentsHypotensive agents: Based on a clinical trial, safflower oil may cause a modest fall in blood pressure and interact additively with hypotensive agents (28). However, several other clinical studies have shown no effect on blood pressure (48; 61; 86). SafflowerSafflower: Safflower may interact when taken with safflower-containing products, such as Renal Disease Basic-prescription (RDBP) and EH0202 (pumpkin seed extract, safflower seed extract, Asian plantain seed extract, and Japanese honeysuckle flower extract).Safflower/Food Interactions:
Cholesterol-reduced animal fatCholesterol-reduced animal fat: According to a clinical trial, ingestion of safflower oil with cholesterol-reduced animal fat may reduce plasma total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and apolipoprotein B concentrations (111). Fish oilFish oil: Based on a clinical trial of patients on hormone replacement therapy, safflower oil may interact additively with fish oil to reduce C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 (109). However, in two clinical studies, safflower oil ingestion did not attenuate the favorable modification of certain risk factors for cardiovascular disease (membrane fatty acid composition, blood lipids, and thrombotic profile) by n-3 PUFA (fish oil) (110). Rice bran oilRice bran oil: Blending rice bran oil with safflower oil, at a definite proportion (7:3, wt/wt), may magnify the hypocholesterolemic efficacy, compared with the effect of each oil alone (112; 113; 114). Safflower/Lab Interactions:
Adipose dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid levelAdipose dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid level: According to a clinical trial, safflower oil may decrease the adipose dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid level in men with low adipose dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (68). AlbuminAlbumin: According to a case series, a statistically significant increase in serum albumin was noted in pediatric patients receiving 20% safflower oil emulsion for two weeks (18) Arachidonate metabolite levelsArachidonate metabolite levels: According to a case series in patients on safflower oil-based total parenteral nutrition, levels of arachidonate metabolites, in particular 22:5 omega 6, may increase (64). Blood pressureBlood pressure: In conflicting clinical trials, safflower oil supplementation has decreased blood pressure (59; 28) or not affected blood pressure (55; 56). CalciumCalcium: According to a clinical trial, safflower oil may significantly decrease leukocyte-ionized calcium (55). These results are supported by a similar, earlier clinical trial by the same author (56). Clotting timeClotting time: Based on clinical trials and laboratory study, safflower may have anti-platelet aggregation activity (2; 30; 27; 31; 32). However, other clinical trials have found that dietary alpha-linolenic acid did not affect the thrombosis (85; 86). Fasting blood glucose (FBG)Fasting blood glucose (FBG): According to a clinical trial in mild type 2 diabetes, safflower oil daily may increase FBG compared with baseline (25). Hepatitis C virus RNA levelsHepatitis C virus RNA levels: According to a clinical trial, EH0202, which contains pumpkin seed extract, safflower seed extract, Asian plantain seed extract, and Japanese honeysuckle flower extract, may decrease hepatitis C virus RNA levels in patients with high viral titers (1). Low density lipoprotein (LDL)Low density lipoprotein (LDL): Clinical trials have had mixed results, with some showing a significant reduction of low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (57; 115) and others showing no significant effect (68; 25). Lipid panelLipid panel: According to clinical trials and laboratory study, ingestion of safflower oil may decrease serum total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, apolipoprotein B, and malondialdehyde-LDL (30; 87; 88; 89; 90; 91; 92). However, some clinical trials found that safflower may increase some serum lipids, including cell cholesterol in the plasma, and increase tri-glyceride-rich lipoproteins (93; 94; 57; 95), several other clinical trials found that safflower oil did not significantly change any of the lipid/lipoprotein values (96; 97; 98; 99; 100; 101; 78; 102; 92). Platelet aggregationPlatelet aggregation: According to one clinical trial, safflower oil may increase platelet linoleic acid and decrease platelet aggregation to ADP; fibrinolysis and bleeding times may remain unaltered (30). ProstaglandinsProstaglandins: According to a clinical trial, safflower oil (39g of n-6 fatty acids) may increase the formation of prostaglandin E2 in patients with essential hypertension (86). Soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1)Soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1): According to a clinical trial, dietary supplementation with safflower oil may significantly decrease soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1) levels (116). TocopherolTocopherol: According to a clinical trial, tocopherol-stripped safflower oil containing may decrease plasma tocopherol levels (117). Total cholesterolTotal cholesterol: According to several clinical trials, safflower oil may not have a significant impact on LDL levels (68; 25; 96). However, according to other clinical trials, safflower oil may significantly decrease cholesterol (87; 115). TriacylglycerolTriacylglycerol: According to a clinical trial, oral fat exposure may increase the first phase triacylglycerol concentration due to release of stored lipid in humans (118; 119). In addition, a mere taste of fat may elevate postprandial triacylglycerol (119). Triglycerides (TGY)Triglycerides (TGY): According to a clinical trial in neonates, parenteral nutrition with safflower oil emulsion may increase free fatty acids (22). WeightWeight: According to a clinical trial, pediatric patients may gain weight after receiving 20% safflower oil emulsion for two weeks (18).