Phyllanthus amarus

Chanca piedra/Drug Interactions:

  • AnalgesicsAnalgesics: In animals, the Phyllanthus amarus methanolic extract had antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and analgesic activity (23; 84).
  • Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin-converting enzyme receptor blockers (ARBs)Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin-converting enzyme receptor blockers (ARBs): Geraniin, a constituent of Phyllanthus, was found to have angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor effects (85), although further details are lacking.
  • AntibioticsAntibiotics: In vitro, Phyllanthus amarus and Phyllanthus niruri had antibacterial (86; 87; 88; 89; 90; 91; 92; 93; 94; 95; 96) and antifungal (92; 97) effects.
  • Anticoagulants and antiplateletsAnticoagulants and antiplatelets: In vitro, methyl brevifolincarboxylate isolated from Phyllanthus niruri inhibited platelet aggregation (43).
  • AntidiabeticsAntidiabetics: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri and Phyllanthus sellowianus extracts reduced fasting blood sugar and suppressed the postprandial rise in blood glucose after food intake (6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13). In rats, glycated hemoglobin levels decreased (9). In mildly hypertensive individuals, P. amarus decreased blood glucose (42).
  • AntidiarrhealsAntidiarrheals: In animals, the aqueous extract of Phyllanthus amarus had antidiarrheal and gastrointestinal protective effects (98).
  • AntihypertensivesAntihypertensives: In animals, the aqueous extract of Phyllanthus amarus leaves had hypotensive effects, with decreases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure (14).
  • Antihyperuricemic agents/xanthine oxidase inhibitorsAntihyperuricemic agents/xanthine oxidase inhibitors: In hyperuricemic animals, phyllanthin, a constituent of Phyllanthus niruri, reduced plasma uric acid levels (99).
  • Anti-inflammatoriesAnti-inflammatories: Anti-inflammatory effects of Phyllanthus amarus have been shown in animals (100; 84; 101; 102; 103).
  • AntilipemicsAntilipemics: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri extract protected against alcohol- and heated sunflower oil-induced hyperlipidemia (cholesterol, triglycerides, and free fatty acids) (45). In diabetic animals, Phyllanthus niruri extracts reduced total cholesterol and triglycerides (6; 7; 12), and hypolipidemic effects have been shown in other animal models (46; 47).
  • AntimalarialsAntimalarials: Phyllanthus niruri and Phyllanthus amarus extracts had antiplasmodial effects in vitro and in vivo (104; 105; 106; 78; 107; 108). In animals, Phyllanthus amarus had antiplasmodial effects against Plasmodium yoelii (108). In vitro, the antiplasmodial activity of callus culture extracts of Phyllanthus niruri has also been shown (105).
  • AntineoplasticsAntineoplastics: Anticancer effects of Phyllanthus niruri and Phyllanthus amarus have been shown in animal and in vitro studies (109; 110; 111; 112; 113; 114; 115; 116; 117).
  • Antiobesity agentsAntiobesity agents: In animals, Phyllanthus amarus leaf and seed aqueous extract resulted in weight loss (12).
  • Antipyretic agentsAntipyretic agents: In animals, Phyllanthus amarus and Phyllanthus niruri extracts had antipyretic effects (23; 84).
  • AntiretroviralsAntiretrovirals: In vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo, Phyllanthus amarus and Phyllanthus niruri fractions inhibited HIV replication (118; 119; 120). A constituent, geraniin, and an extract blocked the interaction of HIV-1 gp120 with its primary cellular receptor CD4 (118). The HIV-1 enzymes integrase, reverse transcriptase, and protease were also inhibited.
  • Antiurolithiasis agentsAntiurolithiasis agents: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri reduced the number and the weight of calculi, although reduced preformed calculus growth was lacking (15). Additionally, it caused a modification in its appearance and texture, resulting in a smoother, homogeneous surface. In a separate animal study, Phyllanthus amarus decreased calcium deposition in the kidneys and tissue calcium levels (121). Antiurolithiatic effects have been shown in other animal models (16; 17).
  • AntiviralsAntivirals: In animals, Phyllanthus amarus and Phyllanthus niruri decreased levels of the antigen titer of the woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) (1; 2), although this effect was lacking with the duck hepatitis B virus (122; 123; 124). In vitro, Phyllanthus amarus root clone extract had activity against the bovine viral diarrhea virus, a surrogate model of hepatitis C virus (125). In animals and in vitro, P. amarus or P. niruri extracts had benefits with respect to the hepatitis B virus, resulting in decreased surface antigens and proliferation (3; 4; 5).
  • Cardiovascular agentsCardiovascular agents: According to secondary sources, Phyllanthus species may have negative chronotropic and inotropic effects.
  • ChemoprotectantsChemoprotectants: In mice, a methanolic extract of Phyllanthus amarus had chemoprotective effects against cyclophosphamide-induced toxicity (126).
  • Cholinergic agonistsCholinergic agonists: In mice, Phyllanthus amarus improved memory scores and reversed induced amnesia; procholinergic activity was suggested (127).
  • DiureticsDiuretics: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri had diuretic effects, resulting in increased urine volume and excretion of sodium, potassium, and chloride (44).
  • Endothelin antagonistsEndothelin antagonists: Phyllanthin, hypophyllanthin, and nirtetralin, constituents of Phyllanthus niruri, had endothelin antagonist effects in vitro (129). Hypophyllanthin was the most potent of the three.
  • Fertility agentsFertility agents: In animals, Phyllanthus amarus negatively affected fertility in both male and female animals (83; 82; 51; 81).
  • Gastrointestinal agentsGastrointestinal agents: In albino rats, Phyllanthus amarus extracts inhibited the ulceration damage of ethanol and decreased alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase (130). Phyllanthus amarus extracts protected against ethanol-induced gastric lesions in other animal studies, resulting in decreased mortality, ulcers, and bleeding, as well as increased glutathione levels, suggesting antioxidant activity (103). In rats, the Phyllanthus niruri leaf extract protected against ethanol-induced gastric mucosal injury, resulting in significantly less gastric mucosal injury and flattening of the mucosal folds (131).
  • Hematological agentsHematological agents: In Wistar rats, the methanol extract of Phyllanthus niruri attenuated chlorpyrifos-evoked erythrocyte fragility and lipoperoxidative changes (132). In individuals with type 2 diabetes, a statistically significant decrease was observed in lymphocyte and monocyte levels following oral consumption of Phyllanthus amarus twice daily for one week; however, there was no effect on overall total white blood cell count and hemoglobin levels (61).
  • HepatotoxinsHepatotoxins: In ethanol-treated rats, Phyllanthus amarus displayed hepatoprotective effects (133; 134; 135). An aqueous extract of Phyllanthus niruri, as well as a protein isolate, had hepatoprotective effects against nimesulide-induced oxidative stress in animals (136; 137). Hepatoprotective effects of Phyllanthus have also been shown in other models such as aflatoxin toxicity models (18), acetaminophen-toxicity models (138), and paracetamol models (139). The hepatoprotective effects of Phyllanthus amarus against carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity have been investigated and shown in other animal studies (19; 20; 21; 22). Patel et al. reported a statistically significant decrease in serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) and bilirubin levels in individuals with liver disease (50).
  • ImmunomodulatorsImmunomodulators: In vitro, the aqueous extract of Phyllanthus niruri increased the phenotypic and functional maturation of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells as well as their antigen-presentation function (48). The extract of P. niruri was found to be a potent murine lymphocyte mitogen, allowing for increases in the expression of surface activation maker (CD69) and proliferation of B and T lymphocytes (49). P. niruri also increased the production of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-4 (IL-4) in na?ve splenocytes cultures, and the various indices of activation and functions murine bone marrow-derived macrophages were enhanced.
  • InterferonsInterferons: In vitro, Phyllanthus amarus root extract had additive effects with IFN-alpha in the inhibition of hepatitis C RNA replication (79). P. niruri also increased the production of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-4 (IL-4) in na?ve splenocytes cultures, and the various indices of activation and functions murine bone marrow-derived macrophages were enhanced (49).
  • Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs)Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs): An aqueous extract of Phyllanthus niruri had hepatoprotective effects against nimesulide-induced oxidative stress in an animal model (136).
  • Ophthalmic agentsOphthalmic agents: : In vitro, Phyllanthus amarus exhibited antimicrobial activity against Micrococcus lylae, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Bacillus lentus, Bacillus firmus, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus, bacteria involved in ocular infections (90).
  • Radioprotective agentsRadioprotective agents: In vitro, polyphenols isolated from Phyllanthus amarus had radioprotective effects, shown by antioxidant effects and DNA-protective effects (140). In animals, P. amarus extract had radioprotective effects in the intestine (141). In animals, Phyllanthus niruri and P. amarus positively affected hematological parameters following gamma radiation (142; 143).
  • Renal agentsRenal agents: In animals, the aqueous leaf and seed extract of Phyllanthus amarus protected against gentamicin- and acetaminophen-induced nephrotoxicity (128). Elevations in the serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels were attenuated, and gentamicin- and acetaminophen-induced tubulonephrosis was reduced.
  • VasodilatorsVasodilators: In vitro, methyl brevifolincarboxylate, a constituent of the leaves of Phyllanthus niruri, exhibited slow relaxation activity against norepinephrine-induced contractions of rat aorta (144).
  • Vulnerary agentsVulnerary agents: In a burn wound model, the ethanolic extract of Phyllanthus niruri reversed dexamethasone suppressed burn wound healing by increasing epithelialization and wound contraction (145).

    • Chanca piedra/Herb/Supplement Interactions:

  • AnalgesicsAnalgesics: In animals, the methanolic extract of Phyllanthus amarus had antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and analgesic activity (23; 84).
  • Angiotensive-converting enzyme inhibitorsAngiotensive-converting enzyme inhibitors: Geraniin, a constituent of Phyllanthus, was found to have angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor effects (85), although further details are lacking.
  • AntibacterialsAntibacterials: In vitro, Phyllanthus amarus and Phyllanthus niruri had antibacterial (86; 87; 88; 89; 90; 91; 92; 93; 94; 95; 96) and antifungal (92; 97) effects.
  • Anticoagulants and antiplateletsAnticoagulants and antiplatelets: In vitro, methyl brevifolincarboxylate isolated from Phyllanthus niruri inhibited platelet aggregation (43).
  • AntidiarrhealsAntidiarrheals: In animals, the aqueous extract of Phyllanthus amarus had antidiarrheal and gastrointestinal protective effects (98). The extract inhibited castor oil-induced diarrhea by reducing frequency of defecation and gut meal travel distance, as well as intestinal transit inhibition.
  • Antihyperuricemic agentsAntihyperuricemic agents: In hyperuricemic animals, phyllanthin, a constituent of Phyllanthus niruri, reduced plasma uric acid levels (99).
  • Anti-inflammatoriesAnti-inflammatories: Anti-inflammatory effects of Phyllanthus amarus have been shown in animals (100; 84; 101; 102; 103).
  • AntilipemicsAntilipemics: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri protected against alcohol- and heated sunflower oil-induced hyperlipidemia (cholesterol, triglycerides, and free fatty acids) (45). In diabetic animals, Phyllanthus niruri extracts reduced total cholesterol and triglycerides (6; 7; 12) and hypolipidemic effects have been shown in other animal models (46; 47).
  • AntimalarialsAntimalarials: Phyllanthus niruri and Phyllanthus amarus extracts had antiplasmodial effects in vitro and in vivo (104; 105; 106; 78; 107; 108). In animals, Phyllanthus amarus had antiplasmodial effects against Plasmodium yoelii (108). In vitro, the antiplasmodial activity of callus culture extracts of Phyllanthus niruri has also been shown (105).
  • AntineoplasticsAntineoplastics: Anticancer effects of Phyllanthus niruri and Phyllanthus amarus have been shown in animals and in vitro (109; 110; 111; 112; 113; 114; 115; 116; 117).
  • Antiobesity agentsAntiobesity agents: In animals, Phyllanthus amarus leaf and seed aqueous extract resulted in weight loss (12).
  • AntioxidantsAntioxidants: In animals, an aqueous extract of Phyllanthus amarus resulted in a decrease in plasma lipopolysaccharides and an increase in plasma vitamin C, uric acid, glutathione levels, and GPx, CAT, and SOD activities (75). In vitro, polyphenol constituents of Phyllanthus amarus Linn. had antioxidant effects on 2,2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2-azobis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS)/ferrylmyoglobin, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and pulse radiolysis tests (146). Antioxidant effects of Phyllanthus niruri have been shown by other authors in in vitro models (147; 148; 149).
  • Antipyretic agentsAntipyretic agents: In animal research, extracts of Phyllanthus amarus and Phyllanthus niruri had antipyretic effects (23; 84).
  • Antiretroviral agentsAntiretroviral agents: In vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo, Phyllanthus amarus and Phyllanthus niruri fractions inhibited HIV replication (118; 119; 120). A constituent (geraniin) and an extract extracts blocked the interaction of HIV-1 gp120 (118). The HIV-1 enzymes integrase, reverse transcriptase, and protease were also inhibited.
  • Antiurolithiasis agents:Antiurolithiasis agents: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri reduced the number and the weight of calculi, although reduced preformed calculus growth was lacking (15). In separate animal research, Phyllanthus amarus decreased calcium deposition in the kidneys and tissue calcium levels (121). Antiurolithiatic effects have been shown in other animal models (16; 17).
  • AntiviralsAntivirals: In animal research, Phyllanthus amarus and Phyllanthus niruri decreased levels of the antigen titer of the woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) (1; 2), but this effect was lacking with duck hepatitis B virus (122; 123; 124). In vitro, Phyllanthus amarus root clone extract had activity against the bovine viral diarrhea virus, a surrogate model of hepatitis C virus (125). In animals and in vitro, Phyllanthus amarus or Phyllanthus niruri extracts had benefits with respect to the hepatitis B virus, resulting in decreased surface antigen and proliferation (3; 4; 5).
  • Azadirachta indicaAzadirachta indica: In animals, the combination of Azadirachta indica A.Juss. and Phyllanthus niruri had synergistic effects in the reduction of glycemia (150).
  • Cardiovascular agentsCardiovascular agents: According to secondary sources Phyllanthus may have negative chronotropic and inotropic effects.
  • Cholinergic agonistsCholinergic agonists: In mice, Phyllanthus amarus improved memory scores and reversed induced amnesia; procholinergic activity was suggested (127).
  • DiureticsDiuretics: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri had diuretic effects, resulting in increased urine volume and excretion of sodium, potassium, and chloride (44).
  • Endothelin antagonistsEndothelin antagonists: Phyllanthin, hypophyllanthin and nirtetralin, constituents of Phyllanthus niruri, had endothelin antagonist effects in vitro (129). Hypophyllanthin was the most potent of the three.
  • Fertility agentsFertility agents: In animals, Phyllanthus amarus negatively affected fertility in both male and female animals (83; 82; 51; 81).
  • Gastrointestinal agentsGastrointestinal agents: In albino rats, Phyllanthus amarus extracts inhibited the ulceration damage of ethanol and decreased alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase (130). Phyllanthus amarus extracts protected against ethanol-induced gastric lesions in other animal studies (103). In rats, the Phyllanthus niruri leaf extract protected against ethanol-induced gastric mucosal injury, resulting in significantly less gastric mucosal injury and flattening of the mucosal folds (131).
  • Gymnema sylvestreGymnema sylvestre: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri and Gymnema sylvestre had greater antidiabetic effects than either agent alone (7).
  • HematologicsHematologics: In Wistar rats, the methanol extract of Phyllanthus niruri attenuated chlorpyrifos-evoked erythrocyte fragility and lipoperoxidative changes (132). In individuals with type 2 diabetes, a statistically significant decrease was observed in lymphocyte and monocyte levels following oral consumption of Phyllanthus amarus twice daily for one week; however, there was no effect on overall total white blood cell count and hemoglobin levels (61).
  • HepatotoxinsHepatotoxins: In ethanol-treated rats, Phyllanthus amarus had hepatoprotective effects (133; 134; 135). An aqueous extract of Phyllanthus niruri, as well as a protein isolate, had hepatoprotective effects against nimesulide-induced oxidative stress in an animal model (136; 137). Hepatoprotective effects of Phyllanthus have also been shown in other models, such as aflatoxin toxicity models (18), acetaminophen-toxicity models (138), and paracetamol models (139). The hepatoprotective effects of Phyllanthus amarus against carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity have been investigated and shown in other animal studies (19; 20; 21; 22). Patel et al. reported a statistically significant decrease in serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) and bilirubin levels in individuals with liver disease (50).
  • Hyperglycemics or hypoglycemicsHyperglycemics or hypoglycemics: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri and Phyllanthus sellowianus extracts reduced fasting blood sugar and suppressed the postprandial rise in blood glucose after food intake (6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13). Glycated hemoglobin levels were decreased (9). In animals, the combination of Azadirachta indica and Phyllanthus niruri had synergistic effects in the reduction of glycemia (150), and the combination of Phyllanthus niruri and Gymnema sylvestre had greater antidiabetic effects than either agent alone (7). In mildly hypertensive individuals, P. amarus decreased blood glucose (42).
  • Hypertensives/hypotensivesHypertensives/hypotensives: In animals, the aqueous extract of the leaves of Phyllanthus amarus had hypotensive effects, with decreases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure (14).
  • ImmunomodulatorsImmunomodulators: In vitro, the aqueous extract of Phyllanthus niruri increased the phenotypic and functional maturation of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells as well as their antigen-presentation function (48). The extract of P. niruri was found to be a potent murine lymphocyte mitogen, allowing for increases in the expression of surface activation maker (CD69) and proliferation of B and T lymphocytes (49). P. niruri also increased the production of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-4 (IL-4) in na?ve splenocytes cultures and the various indices of activation and functions murine bone marrow-derived macrophages were enhanced.
  • Ophthalmic agentsOphthalmic agents: In vitro, Phyllanthus amarus exhibited antimicrobial activity against Micrococcus lylae, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Bacillus lentus, Bacillus firmus, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus, bacteria involved in ocular infections (90).
  • PhytochemicalsPhytochemicals: In hepatotoxic animals, the constituents phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin had greater hepatoprotective effects when combined with rutin or geraniin vs. when phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin were given together but without these agents, or vs. these agents alone (151).
  • Radioprotective agentsRadioprotective agents: In vitro, polyphenols isolated from Phyllanthus amarus had radioprotective effects, shown by antioxidant effects and DNA protective effects (140). In animals, P. amarus extract had radioprotective effects in the intestine, resulting in elevated antioxidant enzymes and decreased lipid peroxidation, DNA protections, and decreased damage to the intestinal cells (141). In animals, Phyllanthus niruri and P. amarus positively affected hematological parameters following gamma radiation (142; 143).
  • Renal agentsRenal agents: In animals, the aqueous leaf and seed extract of Phyllanthus amarus protected against gentamicin and acetaminophen-induced nephrotoxicity (128). Elevations in the serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen levels were attenuated, and induced tubulonephrosis was reduced.
  • SilymarinSilymarin : In animals, the combination of silymarin and Phyllanthus amarus had synergistic hepatoprotective effects in a carbon tetrachloride model (152).
  • VasodilatorsVasodilators: In vitro, methyl brevifolincarboxylate, a constituent of the leaves of Phyllanthus niruri exhibited slow relaxation activity against norepinephrine-induced contractions of rat aorta (144).
  • Vulnerary agentsVulnerary agents: In a burn wound model, the ethanolic extract of Phyllanthus niruri reversed dexamethasone-suppressed burn wound healing by increasing epithelialization and wound contraction (145).

    • Chanca piedra/Food Interactions:

  • Insufficient available evidence.

    • Chanca piedra/Lab Interactions:

  • AntioxidantsAntioxidants: In animals, an aqueous extract of Phyllanthus amarus resulted in a decrease in plasma lipopolysaccharides and an increase in glutathione levels, and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities (75).
  • BilirubinBilirubin: Patel et al. reported a statistically significant decrease in serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) and bilirubin levels in individuals with liver disease (50).
  • Blood pressureBlood pressure: In animals, the aqueous extract of the leaves of Phyllanthus amarus had hypotensive effects, with decreases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure (14).
  • ChlorideChloride: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri had diuretic effects, resulting in increased urine volume and excretion of sodium, potassium, and chloride (44).
  • GlucoseGlucose: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri and Phyllanthus sellowianus extracts reduced fasting blood sugar and suppressed the postprandial rise in blood glucose after food intake (6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13). In mildly hypertensive individuals, P. amarus decreased blood glucose (42).
  • Glycated hemoglobinGlycated hemoglobin: In diabetic animals, Phyllanthus niruri and Phyllanthus sellowianus extracts decreased glycated hemoglobin levels (9).
  • Hematological parametersHematological parameters: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri reversed the effects of aflatoxin on hematological parameters (packed cell volume, lipids, hemoglobin) (153). In animals, the leaf and seed aqueous extract of Phyllanthus amarus elevated packed cell volume and total leukocyte count in normal and attenuated leukopenia and anemia in cyclophosphamide-treated mice (154). In animal toxicology studies investigating the potential toxic effects Phyllanthus, clinicopathological changes included a decrease in the red blood cell (RBC) count, packed cell volume (PCV), and hemoglobin concentration (Hb), and an increase in the white blood cell (WBC) count (69; 71). The effects of pelleted leaves of Phyllanthus amarus were investigated on the hemograms of rats (155), although further details are lacking. In individuals with type 2 diabetes, a statistically significant decrease was observed in lymphocyte and monocyte levels following oral consumption of Phyllanthus amarus twice daily for one week; however, there was no effect on overall total white blood cell count and hemoglobin levels (61).
  • Hepatitis virusHepatitis virus: In woodchuck carriers of woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV), Phyllanthus amarus resulted in a decrease in the levels of the virus (1). In animals, an extract from Phyllanthus niruri resulted in faster decrease in woodchuck hepatitis virus surface antigen titer (2). Phyllanthus amarus did not inhibit duck hepatitis B virus in vivo (122; 123; 124). An extract of P. amarus inhibited cellular proliferation and suppressed HBsAg production, although this effect was lacking with HBeAg production in HepA2 cells (4). Inactivation or secretion inhibition of HBsAg has been shown in other in vitro research (156; 157).
  • Inflammatory cytokinesInflammatory cytokines: In animals, Phyllanthus decreased cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interleukin-1 (IL-1) beta, interleukin-10 (IL-10), and interferon-gamma (IGN-gamma) (158).
  • KetonesKetones: In animals, treatment with Phyllanthus niruri powder decreased ketone bodies (159).
  • Liver enzymesLiver enzymes: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri reversed the effects of aflatoxin on liver enzymes, including alanine amino transferase (ALT) and aspartate amino transferase (AST) (153). In animal studies using hepatotoxic agents, Phyllanthus niruri extracts were found to reduce AST, ALT, alkaline phosphatase, and bilirubin (133; 134; 135; 160; 45; 22; 161; 139). In an animal toxicology study investigating the effects of an aqueous crude extract of the leaves of Phyllanthus amarus, clinicopathological changes included an increase in levels of AST and total and conjugated bilirubin (69). The same author found that various chromatographic fractions resulted in increased aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, serum bilirubin, serum creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen (72). Patel et al. reported a statistically significant decrease in serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) and bilirubin levels in individuals with liver disease (50).
  • Metabolic panelMetabolic panel: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri had diuretic effects, resulting in increased urine volume and excretion of sodium, potassium, and chloride (44).
  • Plasma lipidsPlasma lipids: In animals, Phyllanthus niruri protected against alcohol- and heated sunflower oil-induced hyperlipidemia (cholesterol, triglycerides, and free fatty acids) (45). In diabetic animals, Phyllanthus niruri extracts reduced total cholesterol and triglycerides (6; 7; 12), and hypolipidemic effects have been shown in other animal models (46; 47).
  • Plasma uric acidPlasma uric acid: In hyperuricemic animals, phyllanthin, a constituent of Phyllanthus niruri reduced plasma uric acid levels (99). In an animal model, an aqueous extract of Phyllanthus amarus resulted in an increase in plasma uric acid (75).
  • Platelet aggregationPlatelet aggregation: In vitro, methyl brevifolincarboxylate isolated from Phyllanthus niruri inhibited platelet aggregation (43).
  • PotassiumPotassium: In humans, Phyllanthus amarus increased urine volume, urine sodium, and serum sodium (42).
  • ProteinProtein: In an animal toxicology study investigating the effects of an aqueous crude extract of the leaves of Phyllanthus amarus, clinicopathological changes included an increase in total protein and albumin (69). The same author found that various chromatographic fractions resulted in increased total protein and decreased albumin (72).
  • SodiumSodium: In humans, Phyllanthus amarus increased urine volume, urine sodium, and serum sodium (42).
  • Sperm parametersSperm parameters: In animals, the methanol extract of the Phyllanthus amarus leaf resulted in decreased sperm count and motility (82).
  • TestosteroneTestosterone: In guinea pigs, the methanol extract of Phyllanthus amarus leaves increased testosterone levels but had no effect on leuteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone (162).
  • Urine parametersUrine parameters: In humans, Phyllanthus amarus increased urine volume, urine sodium, and serum sodium (42). In animals, Phyllanthus niruri had diuretic effects, resulting in increased urine volume and excretion of sodium, potassium, and chloride (44).
  • Vitamin CVitamin C: In animals, an aqueous extract of Phyllanthus amarus resulted in an increase in plasma vitamin C (75).